Sustainable agriculture in the semi-arid tropics through biological nitrogen fixation in grain legumes

Sustainable agriculture relies greatly on renewable resources like biologically fixed nitrogen. Biological nitrogen fixation plays an important role in maintaining soil fertility. However, as BNF is dependent upon physical, environmental, nutritional and biological factors, mere inclusion of any N₂-fixing plant system does not guarantee increased contributions to the soil N pool. In the SAT where plant stover is also removed to feed animals, most legumes might be expected to deplete soil N. Yet beneficial legume effects in terms of increased yields in succeeding cereal crops have been reported. Such benefits are partly due to N contribution from legumes through BNF and soil N saving effect. In addition, other non-N rotational benefits, for example, improved nutrient availability, improved soil structure, reduced pests and diseases, hormonal effects are also responsible. In this paper we have reviewed the research on the contribution of grain legumes in cropping systems and the factors affecting BNF. Based on the information available, we have suggested ways for exploiting BNF for developing sustainable agriculture in the semi-arid tropics (SAT). A holistic approach involving host-plant, bacteria, environment and proper management practices including need based inoculation for enhancing BNF in the cropping systems in the SAT is suggested.     

Economic impact of future biological nitrogen fixation technologies on United States agriculture

The economic impact of some future biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) technologies are estimated using AGSIM, an economietric model of United States agriculture. Five separate scenarios were modeled: (1) legumes fix more nitrogen (N₂) with no yield increase, (2) legumes fix more N₂ with an increase in yields of 10%, (3) N fertilization requirements on all crops are reduced 50% with no yield changes, (4) total elimination of N fertilization, and (5) total elimination of N fertilization and non-legume yields decrease 10%. Results indicate that BNF technologies have a high value to society. Increasing the efficiency of legumes to fix N₂ may have an annual US benefit of $1,067 million while decreasing N fertilization by 1,547 thousand metric tons. Total elimination of N fertilization of the major crops has an annual US benefit of $4,484 million.     

Future benefits from biological nitrogen fixation: An ecological approach to agriculture

Strategies for the enhancement and exploitation of biological nitrogen fixation are assessed with attention to the likely timescales for realization of benefits in agriculture. Benefits arising from breeding of legumes for N₂-fixation and rhizobial strain selection have less potential to increase inputs of fixed N than alleviation of environmental stresses or changes in farming systems to include more legumes. Genetic engineering may result in substantial enhancement of N₂-fixation, particularly if the ability to fix N₂ is transferred to other crops but these are long-term goals. Immediate dramatic enhancements in inputs from N₂-fixation are possible simply by implementation of existing technical knowledge. Apart from the unfortunate political and economic barriers to the use of agricultural inputs, better communication between researchers and farmers is required to ensure proper focus of research and development of appropriate technologies. Legumes must be considered within the context of the farming systems within which they are grown and not in isolation. Proper integration of legumes requires a good understanding of the role of the legume within the system and a better understanding of the relative contributions of N sources and of the fates of fixed N.     

Fertilizers and biological nitrogen fixation as sources of plant nutrients: Perspectives for future agriculture

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) has an assured place in agriculture, mainly as a source of nitrogen for legumes. Legumes are currently grown mostly as a source of vegetable oil and as food for humans and animals, but not as nitrogen source.Other crops with BNF capability may be eventually be developed eventually. Such crops will also need mineral fertilizers to maintain a good status of soil nutrients, but their possible effects to the environment is also a concern. Fertilizers, however, will remain a necessary and sustainable input to agriculture to feed the present and increasing human population. It is not a case of whether BNF is better or worse than mineral fertilizers because both plays an important role in agriculture.     

Biological nitrogen fixation in resource-poor agriculture in South Africa

Farm lands of resource-poor communities in South Africa are depleted of nutrients due to continuous mono-cropping, limited use of fertilisers, and sometimes leaching caused by high rainfall. Despite the well-known advantages of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in cropping systems, less than 10% of the grain crops planted annually in these areas are legumes. Using a participatory research and development approach, resource-poor farmers were introduced to conservation agriculture (CA) practices, including BNF, that promoted zero (or reduced) tillage, increased retention of soil cover, as well as crop diversification. Because crop rotation and intercropping of legumes with cereals are known to contribute to soil fertility while enhancing food security, resource-poor farmers from various Provinces in South Africa were trained on the benefits of legume culture for eight years. As a result, these resource-poor farmers did not only get training in inoculation techniques, but were also supplied with inoculants for use on their farms. Data collected from Farmers Demonstration Trials at Belvedere, Dumbarton and Lusikisiki, showed that the grain and fodder yield of maize planted after legumes, and maize intercropped with legumes, were comparable to those of maize receiving high N fertilizer dose (i.e. 54 kg N at planting and 54 kg N as top-dressing). The same data further showed thatRhizobium inoculation, when combined with application of low levels of P and K, significantly increased crop yields within farmers’ trial plots. BNF therefore offers a great opportunity for resource-poor farmers in South Africa to increase their crop yields and thus improve the quality of their livelihoods through the adoption of affordable and sustainable biological technologies that enhance soil fertility.     

Biological nitrogen fixation: Investments,expectations and actual contributions to agriculture

Inputs of biologically fixed N into agricultural systems may be derived from symbiotic relationships involving legumes and Rhizobium spp., partnerships between plants and Frankia spp. or cyanobacteria, or from non-symbiotic associations between free-living diazotrophs and plant roots. It is assumed that these N₂-fixing systems will satisfy a large portion of their own N requirements from atmospheric N₂, and that additional fixed N will be contributed to soil reserves for the benefit of other crops or forage species. This paper reviews the actual levels of N₂ fixation attained by legume and non-legume associations and assesses their role as a source of N in tropical and sub-tropical agriculture. We discuss factors influencing N₂ fixation and identify possible strategies for improving the amount of N₂ fixed.     

Trends in biological nitrogen fixation research and application

In the world each year 17.2×10⁷ tons of N are biologically fixed. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) contributes to plant production in arable lands and in natural ecosystems. Research to improve BNF is progressing through the breeding of efficient N-fixing organisms and host plants, selection of the best combinations of host plant and microsymbiont, and by the improvement of inoculation techniques and field management. Biotechnology is useful for the creation of promising N₂-fixing organisms. However, to increase plant production through enhanced BNF the constraints in establishing effective N₂-fixing systems in the field should be understood and eliminated.     

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes: Perspectives for saline agriculture

Saline agriculture provides a solution for at least two environmental and social problems. It allows us to return to agricultural production areas that have been lost as a consequence of salinization and it can save valuable fresh water by using brackish or salt water to irrigate arable lands. Sea water contains (micro) nutrients that can provide the additional benefit of a reduced need of fertilization in saline agriculture. However, nitrogen is only present in very low quantities in seawater. A salt tolerant nitrogen-fixing legume used as a vegetable crop, fodder or green manure could increase the availability of soil nitrogen as well as the sustainability of saline agriculture while minimizing the application of inorganic fertilizer. Besides the use of salt-tolerant legumes as green manure, such species could also be useful in salinized areas as fodder and/or human food.In this review, we assess the feasibility of the use of legumes in saline agriculture. Most legumes are sensitive to salinity, as is the process of nitrogen fixation by microorganisms in the nodules of the legumes. First, we identify different steps in nodulation and their respective sensitivity to salinity. We will then look at the sensitivity of the process of nitrogen fixation in various crop and non-crop legumes, differing in their tolerance to salinity. We will also look into the differential response of nitrogen fixation and biomass production to salinity. Finally, a list of salt tolerant legumes is presented (derived from the HALOPH database). We then evaluate the applicability and perspective of salt tolerant legumes in saline agriculture considering the diversity in growth forms, ecotypes and economic uses.     

Potential for increasing biological nitrogen fixation in soybean

The importance of soybean as a source of oil and protein, and its ability to grow symbiotically on low-N soils, point to its continued status as the most valuable grain legume in the world. With limited new land on which to expand, and emphasis on sustainable systems, increases in soybean production will come mostly from increased yield per unit area. Improvements in biological nitrogen fixation can help achieve increased soybean production, and this chapter discusses research and production strategies for such improvement.The soybean-Bradyrhizobium symbiosis can fix about 300 kg N ha^-1 under good conditions. The factors which control the amount of N fixed include available soil N, genetic determinants of compatibility in both symbiotic partners and lack of other yield-limiting factors. Response to inoculation is controlled by the level of indigenous, competing bradyrhizobia, the N demand and yield potential of the host, and N availability in the soil.Research efforts to improve BNF are being applied to both microbe and soybean. While selection continues for effective, naturally occurring bradyrhizobia for inoculants and the use of improved inoculation techniques, genetic research on bradyrhizobia to improve effectiveness and competitiveness is advancing. Selection, mutagenesis and breeding of the host have focused on supernodulation, restricted nodulation of indigenous B. japonicum, and promiscuous nodulation with strains of bradyrhizobia from the cowpea cross-inoculation group. The research from the host side appears closer to being ready for practical use in the field.Existing knowledge and technology still has much to offer in improving biological nitrogen fixation in soybean. The use of high-quality inoculants, and education about their benefits and use can still make a significant contribution in many countries. The importance of using the best adapted soybean genotype with a fully compatible inoculant cannot be overlooked, and we need to address other crop management factors which influence yield potential and N demand, indirectly influencing nitrogen fixation. The implementation of proven approaches for improving nitrogen fixation in existing soybean production demands equal attention as received by research endeavours to make future improvements.     

Gas exchange, growth, and antioxidant activity in sugarcane under biological nitrogen fixation

The aim of this study was to characterize the key physiological aspects of three sugarcane cultivars (RB92579, RB867515 and RB872552) under biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Plants were generated in tubes containing aseptic substrates and these plants were transferred to pots containing washed sand, but watered with a mineral fertilizer, and inoculated with a mixture of five diazotrophic bacteria three times at seven-day intervals. Under BNF, all of the cultivars contained half of their total leaf nitrogen content and 50% less shoot dry mass. The leaves of plants under BNF showed approximately 65% less of the total protein content (TP). The gas-exchange control plants had twice the CO₂ assimilation rates than the BNF plants. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) was increased in all cultivars under BNF when compared with the control; thus, the content of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was also increased in these plants. The results of this study indicate that after acclimatization, the inoculation of young plants from tissue culture with diazotrophic bacteria could supply approximately 50% of their nitrogen requirement.