Dietary Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Sweden

Abstract

A duplicate diet study on male and female pensioners in 1970–71 showed mean daily dietary lead intakes of 30 μg and 19 μg respectively. The corresponding cadmium intakes were 10.5μg and 12.9 μg. Analysis of duplicate diets collected during seven consecutive 24-hour periods from 15 women in Stockholm in 1988 showed a mean daily lead intake of 26 μg (range 13–40 μg). The corresponding cadmium intake was 8.5μg (range 5.7–14 μg). Analysis of faeces samples corresponding to the duplicate diets showed similar lead and cadmium contents (mean lead content 24 μg day^?1, range 10–41 μg day^?1; mean cadmium content 8.9 μg day^?1 range 5.5–12 μg day^?1). The median lead and cadmium concentrations in human milk collected in Uppsala were 2 μg kg^?1 and 0.1 mg kg^?1 respectively. The median weekly intakes of lead and cadmium by the breast-fed infants were calculated to be 2 μg kg^?1 body weight and 0.1 μg kg^?1 body weight. Analysis of seven daily diets, together representing the weekly diet of an adult Swedish male, showed a mean lead content of 26 μg (range 15–45 μg), and a mean cadmium content of 10 μg (range 7–15 μg). The mean daily intakes of lead and cadmium found by analysing market baskets prepared in 1987 were 17μg and 12μg respectively. Calculations based on food balance sheet data and levels of lead and cadmium in individual foods showed mean daily intakes of 30 μg lead and 14 μg cadmium per person.     

Risk Assessment of Some PCDDs,PCDFs, Dioxin-Like PCBs,and PCBs in Contaminated Dairy Products: An Egyptian Pilot Case Study

Samples of butter, cream, and white cheese were collected from the city of Ismailia, Egypt, and analyzed for polychloro dibenzo-p-dioxins, pentachloro dibenzo-p-furans, and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl, PCBs. Butter samples had the highest mean content of PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCBs. Butter samples were the most contaminated samples in all dairy products analyzed in this study, whereas white cheese samples were the least contaminated. The spectrum of congeners detected in butter and cream were similar, with all congeners at detectable levels, whereas the spectrum of congeners detected in white cheese differed, with some congeners, namely 1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexa CDD, 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Hepta CDD, and 1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexa CDD below WHO TE toxicity levels. 1,2,3,7,7-PeCDD, with its high concentration, was the principal contributor to the TEQ intake in both cream and butter samples. Similarly, the high concentration of 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF in cream, butter, and white cheese samples was the main factor contributing to their TEQ intake. Estimated intakes of PCDDs/Fs were 129.2, 115.8, and 51.25 pg WHO-TEQ/day for butter, cream, and white cheese, respectively. Taking into account the sum of PCDDs/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs, estimated intakes were, 171.7, 155.8, and 68 pg WHO-TEQ/day, for butter, cream, and white cheese, respectively. Assuming an average bodyweight of 60 kg (WHO-TEQ/kg), these levels correspond to bodyweight-normalized intake levels of .15, 2.92 and 0.95 pg WHO-TEQ/kg/day.     

Health risk assessment of Chinese consumers to lead via diet

This paper investigated the concentrations of Pb in foods and the potential health risk from Pb exposure via surveys and a literature review. It was shown that the mean Pb concentration in different food groups was in the following decreasing order: marine products > meat > egg > vegetable > cereal > bean> dairy > fruit. More precisely, on average the weekly Pb intake (mg kg^?1 bw week^?1) for men, women, 2–3-year-old children, and 4–17-year-old children was 0.0055, 0.0059, 0.0145, and 0.0091, respectively. We used both deterministic and probabilistic methods to estimate the target hazard quotients (THQs) by comparing the dietary Pb intake estimation with respect to the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI). The result showed that THQ values were lower than 1 in most cases, except the 97.5th percentile THQ values for 2–3-year-old children, and the probability of greater dietary Pb exposure than the tolerant weekly intake (THQ > 1) were 0.2%, 0.6%, 3.7%, and 1.2% for adult men, women, 2–3-year-old children, and 4–17-year-old children, respectively, indicating a low health risk for Chinese consumers. Among all groups, children, especially 2–3-year-old children were the most sensitive sub-population with regard to Pb exposure. Finally, it still appeared necessary to continue undertaking efforts to reduce exposure to Pb.     

Assessment of Human Health Risks of Consumption of Cadmium Contaminated Cultured Oysters

With farmed British Columbia (BC) oysters containing higher cadmium concentrations than wild oysters, long-term exposure to cadmium through consumption of oysters has the potential to cause health risks. This study reports on a risk assessment for cadmium intake resulting from the consumption of BC-cultured oyster. The study concludes that Health Canada's current recommended BC-cultured oyster consumption rate for Canadians of 12 oysters per month exceeds the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry chronic oral minimal risk levels (MRL) of 0.2 μ g·kg^{? 1}·day^{? 1} by approximately 4-to 5-fold and reaches the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAP/WHO) reference dose of 1 μg·kg^?1·day^?1 for cadmium consumption for Canadians. This suggests that although the current recommended maximum oyster consumption rates is consistent with the FAO/WHO and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency limits for acceptable risk, it leaves little or no room for error or uncertainty. This is noteworthy as recent studies demonstrate toxicological effects at cadmium intakes of 0.43 to 0.71 μ gCd·kg^?1·day^?1. This study indicates that a lower maximum BC-cultured oyster rate should be considered, particularly for high risk groups, including women with low iron stores, people with renal impairment, smokers, children, and indigenous people who consume organ meats of games and wildlife other than shellfish.     

Occurrence and risk assessment of organophosphorus pesticide residues in Chinese tea

Tea is the second widely consumed beverage next to water. Tea drinking is one of the important pathways for human exposure of organonphosphorus pesticide. Consequently, incidence of organonphosphorus pesticide residues and risk assessment should be clear. In this study, the level of organonphosphorus pesticide residues in 810 Chinese teas manufactured between 2010–2013 was investigated using gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and a flame photometric detector. Incidence of organonphosphorus pesticide residues occurred with a frequency of 29% and the average concentration of 93 μg kg^?1. The residue levels varied from tea types, sale spots, and production area. Chlorpyrifos, isocarbophos, and triazophos were the only three organonphosphorus pesticides with detectable residues, and the detectable rates were 13.0%, 13.6%, and 17.4%, respectively. The corresponding average daily intake of chlorpyrifos, isocarbophos, and triazophos by tea drinking was 0.000083 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0036 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1, and 0.0022 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1. These results showed that the total hazard quotient of organonphosphorus pesticide pesticides from tea drinking was less than 0.02 and that the tea-drinking originated organonphosphorus pesticide exposure had a little adverse health effect for human being.     

Naturally Occurring Ah-Receptor Agonists in Foods: Implications Regarding Dietary Dioxin Exposure and Health Risk

The human diet contains numerous naturally-occurring compounds that are aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists. This analysis compares the dietary TCDD-equivalent (TEQ) dose from specific vegetable indoles vs. the AhR-active PCDD/Fs. Daily dietary doses of indole-3-carbinole (I3C) and its condensation product indolo [3,2-b]carbazole (ICZ) were derived from the published literature. Relative estimate of potency (REP) values were developed for I3C (8.7 × 10^?7) and ICZ (0.5). The TEQ doses of I3C and ICZ together comprised >99% of the total daily TEQ dose; the daily ICZ TEQ dose (1.4 × 10⁶ pg TEQ/day) was approximately 45,000-fold greater than the current dietary PCDD/F TEQ dose (32 pg TEQ/day). When 30-year accumulated body burden and area-under-the curve doses were calculated, I3C/ICZ still comprised a significant fraction (up to 95 and 96%, respectively) of the total TEQ dose. Further, reduction or elimination of meat and dairy products yielded a minimal (less than 4%) decrease in total TEQ dose. These findings indicate that reducing the intake of animal products (the primary source of dietary PCDD/Fs) might not achieve a significant reduction in total “dietary dioxin TEQ” dose; the comparisons also suggest that trace levels of PCDD/Fs in the human diet are unlikely to pose a significant health risk.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment to cadmium of the adult population of Jiangsu province,China: Comparing between semi-probabilistic and fully probabilistic approaches

With rapid industrialization and modernization in China, long-term dietary exposure to cadmium (Cd) has the potential to cause health risks. The traditional probabilistic approach for long-term dietary assessment was a semi-probabilistic method that had limitations in qualifying the variation in concentration data. Thus, this article estimated the long-term dietary exposure to Cd of the adults of Jiangsu province using semi-probabilistic and fully probabilistic approaches, and compared the two models. Cd concentration data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring program 2001–2009. Food consumption data were gathered from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey conducted in 2002. The provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDI) of 0.8 μg kg^–1 bw for Cd was applied in the risk assessment. The estimates of semi-probabilistic approach were within the provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDI) at mean and all percentiles. However, the P95 of exposure with fully probabilistic approach for all population groups were above PTDI. Rice and rice products followed by wheat flour and wheat flour products, crustaceans, pak-choi, beans, and bean products contributed most to the Cd intake for adults. The fully probabilistic estimates could indicate a possible public health concern on Cd for adults in Jiangsu province.     

Concentration and health risk assessment of nitrates in vegetables from conventional and organic farming

The aims of the study were to determine: (1) nitrates concentrations in vegetables from conventional and organic farming and (2) potential health risk assessment relating to vegetables containing nitrates. The analyses were made on the 27 types of vegetables. The nitrates concentrations were determined by the potentiometric method with the CyberScan ION 510 ionometer. The highest nitrates concentrations were found for lettuce, both from conventional and organic farming. The root and bulb vegetables (potato, carrot, parsley root, radish, celery root) from conventional farming had higher nitrates concentrations than those from organic farming. For leafy vegetables (beet leaves, broccoli, chive from onion, kale, dill, lettuce, celery leaves, chive, spinach), nitrates concentrations were higher in case of organic than conventional farming. Total daily nitrates intake in vegetables from conventional farming was equal to 1.45 mg NO₃ kg^?1 bw day^?1, which is 39.2% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI), and for organic farming, it was equal to 1.91 mg NO₃ kg^?1 bw day^?1 (28.5% ADI). Health risk from vegetables containing nitrates consumption was low, both for organic (HI_O = 0.66) and conventional (HI_C = 0.86) farming. However, in case of the organic farming, this value was approaching the limit of the acceptable risk value.     

Preliminary results on growth and feeding of wild-caught young goldblotch grouper, Epinephelus costae, in captivity

Growth, food intake, feed conversion, survival, and behaviour of wild‐caught goldblotch grouper, Epinephelus costae Steindachner, (initial weight=103.04 ± 8.27g) were evaluated when reared in captivity. Average weight gains ranged between 0.106 and 0.278 g day^?1, while corresponding gains in length ranged between 0.005 and 0.018 cm day^?1. Average daily growth rate was between 0.075 and 0.232% body weight day^?1 (overall 0.141 ± 0.08% bw/day). Daily rate of feeding was estimated to be between 0.299 and 0.418% bw day^?1 (overall 0.365 ± 0.09% bw day^?1). Food conversion ratio (FCR) ranged between 0.21 and 0.77 (overall FCR=0.423). Food intake was dependent on water temperature.     

Exposure to aflatoxin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> in Thailand by consumption of brown and color rice

This study assessed the aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) intake of the Thai population through consumption of contaminated brown and color rice. A total of 240 rice samples from two harvesting periods were collected in June/July 2012 (period I) and in December 2012/January 2013 (period II) and analyzed for AFB₁ by HPLC with fluorescence detection (limit of detection (LOD)?=?0.093 ng/g). Exposure assessment was based on AFB₁ levels in rice and food intake data for rice according to Thai National Consumption. Frequency and levels of AFB₁ were higher in period I (59 %, <LOD?=?26.61 μg kg^?1) than in period II (10 %, <LOD?=?3.51 μg kg^?1). Only one sample exceeded the Thai standard limit for total aflatoxin of 20 μg kg^?1, but 12 out of 240 rice samples exceeded the European Union maximum level for AFB₁ of 2 μg kg^?1. The data showed that the quality and safety of Thai rice largely comply with the requirement for both exports and domestic consumption. According to the Thai National Consumption data, the estimated AFB₁ intake via rice consumption in period I and period II was 0.80 and 0.12 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. The potential risk for cancer, based on the recommendation of the JECFA, was estimated to be 0.011 person/year/100,000 people at a mean consumption. Although the risk via consumption of Thai rice seems to be low, the maximum levels of AFB₁ in this staple food suggest that careful monitoring and surveillance of AFB₁ contamination in rice is essential to ensure the safety of rice.     

Copper and zinc concentrations in human hair and popular foodstuffs in China

Concentrations of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were determined in 383 human hair samples and in 445 food samples purchased in 11 Chinese cities. The concentrations of Cu were 7.91, 5.39, 2.27 and 2.20 mg kg^?1 and those of Zn were 47.2, 24.8, 52.8 and 30.2 mg kg^?1 in vegetables, cereals, meat and fish, respectively. The overall mean concentrations of hair Cu and Zn were 8.97 and 128 mg kg^?1, respectively. Hair Cu and Zn concentrations were higher in females than in males, especially in the 13–19 and 20–50 year age groups. Hair Cu concentration increased with increasing age and these changes occurred mainly in males. In contrast, 51–65 years old females had the lowest hair Zn concentrations. Residents of rural areas had similar hair Cu or Zn concentrations to people in urban areas. There were no significant correlations between hair concentration and food intake in terms of Cu and Zn among the cities. The results indicate that hair Cu and Zn concentrations and their changes with biological and environmental factors cannot be explained satisfactorily by the estimated food intakes in the cities sampled.     

Dietary molar ratios of phytate: Zinc and millimolar ratios of phytate × calcium: Zinc in South Koreans

The zinc nutritional status in south Koreans was established by evaluation of zinc, calcium and phytate intakes, the molar ratio of phytate: zinc, and the millimolar ratio of phytate × calcium: zinc. The intakes of iron and magnesium were also estimated. Sampling was designed so that it was representative of the national population. Two-day food records were used for the calculation of nutrient intakes, using food consumption data from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (’95NNS) for South Korea. Daily intakes of zinc and calcium were estimated to be 10.1 mg/d and 426.5 mg/d, respectively, and those of iron and magnesium were 15.2 mg/d and 268.0 mg/d, respectively. The estimated daily phytate intake was 1676.6 mg/d. The ratio of phytate: zinc was 15.9 mol/d and that of phytate × calcium: zinc was 168.9 mmol/d. The ratio in millimoles per 4.2 MJ (1000 kcal) of phytate × calcium: zinc was 91.8. The major food groups for zinc intake were meat, poultry and their products (43%), and cereals and grain products (18%). Sixty-two percent of zinc was from animal food sources. Cereal and grain products supplied most of the phytate intake (46%) followed by seasonings, fruits, and legumes and their products. The major food source of phytate was rice (39%). The results of the study raise concern about the suboptimal zinc status in relation to the Western diet.     

Feed intake and digestion in the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus): Consequences for dietary management

Captive maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) often consume diets high in prey and meat items even though they are omnivorous in the wild. These soft, high protein diets may exacerbate conditions of gingivitis and cystinuria in this species. Feed intakes were monitored in wolves provided with prey and meat-based diets (3 periods) and subsequently with extruded dog chows and small amounts of prey (2 periods). Digestibilities of each type of diet were measured with the indigestible marker chromic oxide. Dry matter intakes were similar between diets (374–584 g · 30 kg^?1 · d^?1), even though dietary protein content was reduced from 44% to 29% of dry matter. Digestibility of dry matter was unaltered by these dietary changes (77% of high prey diet vs. 73% of chow diet), but fecal consistency changed to softer stools at lower intakes of prey. Estimated metabolizable energy intakes of wolves (501–674 kJ · kg^?0.75 · d^?1) were similar to the maintenance requirement for domestic dogs (525 kJ · kg^?0.75 · d^?1), suggesting a similar energy requirement for maintenance of the wolves. The metabolizable energy derived from protein in the high prey diets was 37%, whereas that of the chow diets was only 27%. These levels exceed estimates of protein requirements for maintenance (4.3–21.8%) and growth (11.5–20.3%) in domestic dogs and may thus exceed those of the wolves. Dietary management of maned wolves should minimize excess protein intake by limiting prey consumption and acclimating animals to extruded diets for domestic dogs. Further research is required to formulate diets for long-term management of cystinuria in maned wolves. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Estimation of Dietary Intake of Inorganic Arsenic in U.S. Children

Arsenic is a natural component of the environment and is ubiquitous in soils, water, and the diet. Because dietary intake can be a significant source of background exposure to inorganic arsenic (the most toxicologically significant form), accurate intake estimates are needed to provide a context for risk management of arsenic exposure. Intake of inorganic arsenic by adults is fairly well characterized, but previous estimates of childhood intake were based on inorganic arsenic analyses in a limited number of foods (13 food types). This article estimates dietary intake for U.S. children (1 to 6 years of age) based on reported inorganic arsenic concentrations in 38 foods and in water used in cooking those foods (inorganic arsenic concentration of 0.8 μg/L), and U.S. Department of Agriculture food consumption data. This information is combined using a probabilistic software model to extract food consumption patterns and compute exposure distributions. The mean childhood dietary intake estimate for inorganic arsenic was 3.2 μg/day with a range of 1.6 to 6.2 μg/day for the 10th and 95th percentiles, respectively. For both the mean and 95th percentile inorganic arsenic intake rates, intake was predominantly contributed by grain and grain products, fruits and fruit juices, rice and rice products, and milk.     

Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin B1 from Food Consumption in the Korean General Population

Levels were evaluated of Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB1) exposure through the intake of AFB1-contaminated foods among Koreans. Average daily intake, excess cancer risk, and population risk of AFB1 from food intake were calculated from Koreans with age greater than 20 years. Average daily intake of AFB1 by food ingestion was 0.064 ～ 0.361 ng/kg bw/ day. Excess cancer risk of AFB1 in food with the surface antigen of the hepatitis B-virus negative (HBsAg^?) and positive (HBsAg⁺) population was 5.76 × 10^{? 7}～ 3.25 × 10^{? 6} and 1.47 × 10^{? 5}～ 8.31 × 10^{? 5}, respectively. Application of JECFA's two tentative maximum levels (MLs) (10 μ g/kg and 20 μ g/kg) resulted in the population risk of 0.0009 ～ 0.0075 and 0.0014 ～ 0.0079 cancers/year/100,000 people, respectively, indicating that lower ML does not give a significant reduction of the risk. However, because Korea has a high incidence of HBsAg⁺ individuals, adoption of lower ML may be a reasonable decision to protect a high risk group. This is the first report on the risk assessment of AFB1 in food among the Korean population. Our study will contribute to providing the solid basis of establishing the maximum levels of AFB1 exposure through food ingestion in Korea as well as other countries.     

Review: Dairy foods,red meat and processed meat in the diet: implications for health at key life stages

Social and health care provision have led to substantial increases in life expectancy. In the UK this has become higher than 80 years with an even greater proportional increase in those aged 85 years and over. The different life stages give rise to important nutritional challenges and recent reductions in milk consumption have led to sub-optimal intakes of calcium by teenage females in particular when bone growth is at its maximum and of iodine during pregnancy needed to ensure that supply/production of thyroid hormones to the foetus is adequate. Many young and pre-menopausal women have considerably sub-optimal intakes of iron which are likely to be associated with reduced consumption of red meat. A clear concern is the low intakes of calcium especially as a high proportion of the population is of sub-optimal vitamin D status. This may already have had serious consequences in terms of bone development which may not be apparent until later life, particularly in post-menopausal women. This review aims to examine the role of dairy foods and red meat at key life stages in terms of their ability to reduce or increase chronic disease risk. It is clear that milk and dairy foods are key sources of important nutrients such as calcium and iodine and the concentration of some key nutrients, notably iodine can be influenced by the method of primary milk production, in particular, the iodine intake of the dairy cow. Recent meta-analyses show no evidence of increased risk of cardiovascular diseases from high consumption of milk and dairy foods but increasing evidence of a reduction in the risk of type 2 diabetes associated with fermented dairy foods, yoghurt in particular. The recently updated reports from the World Cancer Research Fund International/American Institute for Cancer Research on the associations between dairy foods, red meat and processed meat and various cancers provide further confidence that total dairy products and milk, are associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer and high intakes of milk/dairy are not associated with increased risk of breast cancer. Earlier evidence of a significant increase in the risk of colorectal cancer from consumption of red and particularly processed meat has been reinforced by the inclusion of more recent studies. It is essential that nutrition and health-related functionality of foods are included in evaluations of sustainable food production.     

Methods of improving the utilization of cereal straw by ruminants. II. Further studies on dried grass as a supplement for lambs

Sixteen growing castrated lambs (37.0 ± 3.31 kg) were used in two 5 × 5 and one 6 × 6 Latin squares to measure the intake and digestibility of: (1) urea—molasses-treated straw, or mixtures containing (2) 25; (3) 50; or (4) 75% dried grass; and (5) grass alone. The dry matter intake was 40, 50, 69, 84 and 90 g day^?1 per kg of metabolic live weight (P<0.001), and digestibility was 470, 489, 591, 671 and 735 g kg^?1, respectively, for the above treatments. The dry matter intake of lambs offered diets 2, 3 and 4 as complete diets was 47, 56 and 66 g day^?1 kg of metabolic live weight, and digestibility was 513, 621 and 673 g kg^?1, respectively. When the feeds were offered separately, dry matter intake was 54, 63 and 78 g day^?1 per kg of metabolic live weight and digestibility was 541, 582 and 662 g kg^?1, respectively. Dry matter intake for mixed diets was higher (P<0.01) than for feeds given separately.     

Methylmercury and Total Mercury in Eels, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anguilla anguilla</Emphasis>, from Lakes in Northeastern Poland: Health Risk Assessment

In the aquatic environment, mercury is readily methylated into its most toxic form of methylmercury. In this form, it enters the aquatic food chain and its concentrations increase in subsequent links, which decreases the quality of fish meat and poses risks to consumer health. Concentrations of methylmercury (MeHg) and total mercury (THg) were determined in the muscle tissues of 64 eel specimens measuring from 59 to 95 cm in length as functions of specimen size and weight. Risks posed to consumers by eel from different length classes were also assessed. The mean concentration of THg in all of the eel examined was 0.179 mg kg^?1, but the range was from 0.028 to 0.487 mg kg^?1. The mean concentration of MeHg was 0.147 mg kg^?1, and the range was also wide from 0.023 to 0.454 mg kg^?1. Accumulated MeHg and THg increased with eel body length. The percentage share of MeHg in THg also changed with specimen length, and there was a positive correlation between the concentrations of MeHg and THg. Risk assessment was performed based on the doses of THg and MeHg ingested with fish for several specimen length classes. Consuming the meat of eel measuring 80 cm in length increased the estimated weekly intake (EWI) of THg and MeHg twofold in comparison to that from specimens 60 cm in length and fourfold in specimens exceeding 90 cm in length. The percentage shares of the EWI in the tolerable weekly intake and the target hazard quotient coefficient also increased proportionally. Generally, concentrations of MeHg and THg in eel are below current limits and pose no risk to consumer health as long as the consumption of larger specimens is avoided.     

Role of protein and amino acids in promoting lean mass accretion with resistance exercise and attenuating lean mass loss during energy deficit in humans

Amino acids are major nutrient regulators of muscle protein turnover. After protein ingestion, hyperaminoacidemia stimulates increased rates of skeletal muscle protein synthesis, suppresses muscle protein breakdown, and promotes net muscle protein accretion for several hours. These acute observations form the basis for strategized protein intake to promote lean mass accretion, or prevent lean mass loss over the long term. However, factors such as protein dose, protein source, and timing of intake are important in mediating the anabolic effects of amino acids on skeletal muscle and must be considered within the context of evaluating the reported efficacy of long-term studies investigating protein supplementation as part of a dietary strategy to promote lean mass accretion and/or prevent lean mass loss. Current research suggests that dietary protein supplementation can augment resistance exercise-mediated gains in skeletal muscle mass and strength and can preserve skeletal muscle mass during periods of diet-induced energy restriction. Perhaps less appreciated, protein supplementation can augment resistance training-mediated gains in skeletal muscle mass even in individuals habitually consuming ‘adequate’ (i.e., >0.8 g kg^?1 day^?1) protein. Additionally, overfeeding energy with moderate to high-protein intake (15–25 % protein or 1.8–3.0 g kg^?1 day^?1) is associated with lean, but not fat mass accretion, when compared to overfeeding energy with low protein intake (5 % protein or ~0.68 g kg^?1 day^?1). Amino acids represent primary nutrient regulators of skeletal muscle anabolism, capable of enhancing lean mass accretion with resistance exercise and attenuating the loss of lean mass during periods of energy deficit, although factors such as protein dose, protein source, and timing of intake are likely important in mediating these effects.     

Gender as a factor in an environmental assessment of the consumption of animal and plant-based foods in Germany

Purpose

Due to their production intensity, different foods of animal or plant origin play a crucial role in the assessment of the environmental impacts of human nutrition and diets. Based on a representative nutrition survey in Germany from the year 2006, a life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to quantify nutrition-related emissions of animal and plant-based foods (excluding beverages), with a special focus on the socio-demographic factor gender.

Materials and methods

For the study, representative data sets concerning German food production and consumption were used. These were complemented by the Danish LCA Food database and other LCA data to analyse the impact of food imports. As regards environmental impact assessment, global warming potential (GWP) was assessed, which included emissions from direct land use change and land use (dLUC, LU), along with three inventory indicators (ammonia emissions, land use, blue water use). The following food groups were analysed from cradle-to-store and their impacts were evaluated and compared with each other: animal-based foods (meat products, milk products, egg products and fish products), plant-based foods (grain products, vegetables, fruits, potato products, margarine/oils, sugar/sweets). The reference year in the study is the year 2006.

Results and discussion

For all indicators, the results show strong variation between the genders. Even if the physiologically different consumption patterns among men and women are adjusted on a weight basis, men show a higher impact in terms of GWP (CO₂ eq. +25%), ammonia emissions (+30%) and land use (+24%). In contrast, women demonstrate a higher water demand (+11%). These differences are primarily caused by a higher share of meat and meat products in the usual diet of men (+28%) as well as of fruit and vegetables in the diet of women (+40%). If men were to shift qualitatively to the usual diet of women, then 14.8 Mt CO₂ eq. and 60.1 kt ammonia emissions could be saved annually. Within the system boundaries of our study, this would translate into a reduction of 12% of CO₂ eq. and 14% of ammonia emissions. With regard to land use, this equals an area of 15,613?km²?year^?1 (?11%), whereas the total blue water demand would be increased by 94?Mm³?year^?1 (+7%). Limitations within this study are caused by the system boundaries cradle-to-store and are also due to the restricted set of environmental indicators which were analysed. Nonetheless, our results for GWP and land use are in keeping with previous studies. The results concerning ammonia and blue water use are limited when compared with other study results.

Conclusions

The study shows that within one society distinct diet profiles with markedly different environmental impacts are already established. Taking cultural and physiological considerations among the genders into account, these differences could be seen as offering potential opportunities to strengthen sustainable diet profiles. Further research should also consider health impact assessments to ensure that alterations in diet profiles due to environmental constraints do not lead to disadvantageous public health effects. Particular attention should be paid here to potentially undernourished subgroups (such as the elderly, sick people, pregnant women).