Effect of Soil Depth and Moisture on the Vertical Distribution of Steinernema riobrave (Nematoda: Steinernematidae)

The effect of soil moisture on the distribution of Steinernema riobrave in a sand column was determined. Larvae of Pectinophora gossypiella were used to detect S. riobrave infective juveniles (IJ) in each 2.5-cm section of 30-cm-long soil columns. Soil moisture was determined for each section and related to the numbers of nematodes recovered from infected insect baits. Infective juveniles of S. riobrave applied on the sand column surface showed some degree of positive geotaxis. IJ in soil columns with a consistent moisture gradient grouped in the upper 12.7 cm within a water potential range of ¯40 to ¯0.0055 MPa (2% to 14% moisture). Nematodes in sand columns that were gradually dehydrating moved down the soil column, aggregating on the 28th day between 15-23 cm in depth. Nematode redistribution over time allowed IJ to remain within a water potential range of ¯0.1 to ¯0.012 MPa (5.2% to 9.5% moisture).     

Vertical Distribution of Three Namatode Species in Relation to Certain Soil Properties

Population densities of Belonolaimus longicaudatus, Pratylenchus brachyurus, and Trichodorus christiei were determined from soil samples taken weekly in Tifton, Georgia during a 14-month period (except for April and May) at 15-cm increments to a depth of 105 cm. Belonolaimus longicaudatus predominately inhabited the top 30 cm of soil that was 87-88% sand, 6-7% silt, and 5-7% clay. No specimens were found below 60 cm where the soil was 76-79% sand, 5-6% silt, and 15-19% clay. Highest population densities occurred during June through September when temperature in the top 30 cm of soil was 22-25 C and soil moisture was from 9 to 20% by volume. Pratylenchus brachyurus was found at all depths, but population densities were greatest 45-75 cm deep where the soil was 78-79% sand, 6% silt, and 15-16% clay. In the months monitored, highest population densities occurred during March, June, and December when the soil temperature 45-75 cm deep was 14-17 C and soil moisture was 22-42%. Trichodorus christiei was found at all depths, but population densities were highest 30 cm deep where the soil was 83% sand, 5% silt, and 12% clay. Highest population densities occurred during December through March when the soil temperature 30 cm deep was 11-17 C and soil moisture was 18-23%.     

The Effects of Soil Type,Particle Size, Temperature,and Moisture on Reproduction of Belonolaimus longicaudatus

Effects of soil type, particle size, temperature, and moisture on the reproduction of Belonolaimus longicaudatus were investigated under greenhouse conditions. Nematode increases occurred only in soils with a minimum of 80% sand and a maximum of 10% clay. Optimum soil particle size for reproduction of the Tarboro, N.C. and Tifton, Ga. populations of the nematode was near that of 120-370 μm (65-mesh) silica sand. Reproduction was greatest at 25-30 C. Some reproduction by the Tifton, Ga. population occurred at 35 C, whereas the Tarboro, N.C. population declined, as compared to the initial inoculum. Both populations reproduced slightly at 20 C. Nematode reproduction was greater at a moisture level of 7% than at a high of 30% or a low of 2%. Reproduction occurred at the high moisture level only when the nutrient solution was aerated.     

Effect of water stress on functioning and structure ofCicer arietinum L. nodules

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. cv. 235) plants were grown in sand culture at moisture equal to 45–50% of sand saturation capacity under greenhouse conditions. 60 d after sowing, pots were divided into four lots, leaving one as control and sand moisture content of others was brought to 25–30% (S₁), 12–15% (S₂) and 5–6% (S₃) of sand saturation capacity, by withholding the water supply and then maintaining the required levels gravimetrically till the harvest. Relative water content of leaves and nodule water content were measured as indices of water stress. With increase in the severity and duration of water stress nitrogenase activity and nitrogen and leghemoglobin content of the nodules decreased and the ratio of leghemoglobin components I and II were changed. Nodules developed under limited water availability showed decreased branching, breakdown of the endodermis, greater compactness and decreased vacuolation of cells in the central symbiotic tissue as compared to the control.     

沙芥和斧形沙芥种子萌发对土壤含水量的适应性

以中国特有种沙芥[Pugionium cornutum(L.)Gaertn.]和濒危种斧形沙芥(Pugionium dolabratum Max-im.)的种子为研究材料,利用自然生境的沙土在室内进行种子萌发人工模拟试验,研究沙芥和斧形沙芥种子萌发、幼苗出土和幼苗生长对土壤含水量的适应性。结果表明:沙芥和斧形沙芥果实适宜萌发的土壤含水量范围均为6%～12%,适宜出苗的土壤含水量范围均为6%～16%。当土壤含水量低于2%时,果实不能萌发;当土壤含水量低于3%时,幼苗不能出土定居;当土壤含水量为6%～12%时,最有利于幼苗的生长。当土壤含水量分别为3%～8%和4%～8%时,沙芥和斧形沙芥植株根冠比最大。因此,沙芥和斧形沙芥种子萌发机制对沙生环境有着极强的适应性;植株将更多的同化物用于根系生长,以吸收更深层次的水分,从而适应含水量低的土壤。     

Measuring and Modeling the Effect of Surface Moisture on the Spectral Reflectance of Coastal Beach Sand

Surface moisture is an important supply limiting factor for aeolian sand transport, which is the primary driver of coastal dune development. As such, it is critical to account for the control of surface moisture on available sand for dune building. Optical remote sensing has the potential to measure surface moisture at a high spatio-temporal resolution. It is based on the principle that wet sand appears darker than dry sand: it is less reflective. The goals of this study are (1) to measure and model reflectance under controlled laboratory conditions as function of wavelength () and surface moisture () over the optical domain of 350–2500 nm, and (2) to explore the implications of our laboratory findings for accurately mapping the distribution of surface moisture under natural conditions. A laboratory spectroscopy experiment was conducted to measure spectral reflectance (1 nm interval) under different surface moisture conditions using beach sand. A non-linear increase of reflectance upon drying was observed over the full range of wavelengths. Two models were developed and tested. The first model is grounded in optics and describes the proportional contribution of scattering and absorption of light by pore water in an unsaturated sand matrix. The second model is grounded in soil physics and links the hydraulic behaviour of pore water in an unsaturated sand matrix to its optical properties. The optical model performed well for volumetric moisture content 24% ( 0.97), but underestimated reflectance for between 24–30% ( 0.92), most notable around the 1940 nm water absorption peak. The soil-physical model performed very well ( 0.99) but is limited to 4% 24%. Results from a field experiment show that a short-wave infrared terrestrial laser scanner ( = 1550 nm) can accurately relate surface moisture to reflectance (standard error 2.6%), demonstrating its potential to derive spatially extensive surface moisture maps of a natural coastal beach.     

Effect of Soil Water Potential on Growth of Apple Trees Infected with Pratylenchus penetrans

Malling-Merton 106 apple rootstocks inoculated with Pratylenchus penetrans, or uninoculated, were grown in a growth chamber in pots of loamy sand maintained at two moisture levels, 0 to -0.4 bar or 0 to -10 bars. Either inoculation or low soil moisture suppressed shoot growth and increased root necrosis. However, the nematode-soil moisture interaction was not significant.     

Correlations of Nematodes and Soil Properties in Soybean Fields

Soil samples from 40 soybean fields were collected in 1967 and 1968 and analyzed for nematodes and soil properties. Correlations o f total nematodes, non-stylet nematodes, Dorylaimoidea (excluding Xiphinema americanum), X. americanum, Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus, Tylenchus spp., Aphelenchus avenae, and other groupings of nematodes were made with pH; percentage sand, silt, and clay; percentage organic matter; cation exchange capacity; saturation percentage, and percentage saturation. Organic matter, pH, and cation exchange capacity were most consistently highly correlated with the nematodes. H. pseudorobustus had the most consistently significant correlations with the soil factors. Correlations of nematodes were with more soil factors and were stronger in a wet than in a dry year. The highest numbers of nematodes were usually found in the lighter soils, except in the loamy sand where moisture probably was limiting. In general, soil moisture levels below 20% saturation were probably limiting for most nematodes studied, except for the dorylaims which survived in large numbers in soils with less than 20% saturation.     

Anhydrobiotic Coiling of Nematodes in Soil

Nematodes of three genera (Acrobeloides sp., Aphelenchus avenae, and Scutellonema brachyurum) were induced to coil and enter anhydrobiosis in drying soil of two types: sandy loam and loamy sand. Coiling was studied in relationship to soil moisture characteristics. Coiling and the physiological state of anhydrobiosis occurred before the water in sandy soils reached a water potential of -15 bars. Coiling was maximum at 3-6 bars, depending on the soil type and nematode species. It appeared that induction of coiling and anhydrohiosis were determined by the physical forces exerted by the water film surrounding the nematode, which, for these three species, was 6-9 monomolecular layers of water, rather than the % moisture and relative humidity of the soil per se.     

Susceptibility of preimaginal western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens (Diptera: Tephritidae) to Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin Clavicipitaceae (Hypocreales)

Last-instar larvae of the western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens, were subjected to Beauveria bassiana GHA incorporated into sterile sand and non-sterile orchard soil. Mycosis in the pupal stage was observed in >20% of buried R. indifferens pupae and >80% of larvae entering sand treated with either of two B. bassiana isolates. When pre-pupal larvae burrowed into conidium-treated non-sterile cherry orchard soil, the incidence of mycosis, on both the puparia and internally developing pupae, increased with dose. Internal pupal tissues were found to contain B. bassiana. Increasing the soil moisture level from 20% to 35% water holding capacity did not have an effect on the percentage of mycosed pupae. This is the first evidence that the preimaginal stages of R. indifferens are susceptible to infection by B. bassiana.     

Tunneling activity of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in sand with moisture gradients

Tunnel formation by Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes flavipes was studied in a two-dimensional foraging arena with a moisture gradient. Moisture did not appear to affect tunneling when termite first emerged from the central release chamber. But as termites of both species moved further away from the chamber and into a moisture gradient, they tunneled significantly (P < 0.05) more in sand with a higher moisture content than in sand with a lower moisture content. Over the 10 d test period, both termite species tunneled more in sand with a higher moisture content. Fractal analysis indicated that regardless of the sand moisture content, termite tunnel geometry had a fractal dimension and termites generally tunneled more in higher moisture sand.     

极端干旱区咸水灌溉下流沙压埋的减蒸抑盐效应

塔克拉玛干沙漠公路防护林采用2.58～29.70 g·L^-1高矿化度地下水滴灌,流沙压埋和水盐胁迫均是其面临的主要问题.探讨流沙压埋对土壤水分蒸发、盐分表聚及其分布的影响,对节水抑盐和指导干旱沙区水土资源的合理利用具有重要意义.采用微型蒸发器（MLS）研究了不同厚度沙埋下土壤蒸发及其水盐动态,并采用田间控制试验研究了滴管带不同厚度流沙压埋下土壤水盐分布状况.结果表明： 1～5 cm沙埋下,MLS土壤日蒸发量和累积蒸发量均随沙埋厚度的增加而逐渐降低,累积蒸发量比对照降低2.5%～13.7%,土壤水分蒸发抑制效率随着沙埋厚度的增加而增高,1～5 cm厚度的沙埋蒸发抑制效率达16.7%～79.0%,流沙压埋界面以下土壤最终含水量随沙埋厚度的增加而增大,比对照增加2.5%～13.7%.随着沙埋厚度的增加,MLS内流沙表层电导率逐渐降低,分别降低1.19～6.00 mS·cm^-1,而压埋界面以下土壤盐分含量逐渐增加,且流沙表层盐分的变幅大于压埋界面以下土层.咸水滴灌条件下,流沙压埋界面以下土壤含水量随着压埋厚度的增加而增大,分别增加0.4%～2.0%;流沙表层积盐量随着流沙压埋厚度的增加呈先增后减的〖JP2〗趋势,流沙压埋厚度为10 cm时最高,电导率达7.77 mS·cm^-1,流沙压埋界面以下土层含盐量均远低于流沙浅层,35 cm可作为节水抑盐的临界流沙压埋厚度.流沙压埋对土壤水分蒸发和盐分表聚抑制作用极为明显,在干旱沙漠区,可以利用流沙压埋这一自然灾害,达到减蒸抑盐、变害为利的目的.     

Colonization and Sex Ratios of Pratylenchus alleni in Soybean Roots under Two Soil Moisture Regimes

Population size and sex ratios of Pratylenchus alleni in soybeans were studied trader two different moisture regimes in Hagener loamy fine sand. Soil moisture was maintained from field capacity to 50% below field capacity in the dry regime and from field capacity to 25% above field capacity in the wet regime. The initial peak of colonization of soybeans by P. alleni was in the top 5-cm of taproot 14 days after seeding. There were more P. alleni per unit length of taproot in the dry than in the wet regime during the first 7 days, and this trend continued in the top 5-cm of the taproot for 21 days. Nematode density was greater in taproots than in fibrous roots. The ratio of males to females recovered from roots was significantly higher in the dry than in the wet regime.     

Infection of the Cat Flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché) by Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser

Infection of cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, larvae by the entomophilic nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae was accomplished in the laboratory. The Breton strain of N. carpocapsae provided higher larval mortality at lower dosages than did the DD-136 strain. Adult nematodes were evident in the insect hemocoel after 48 h; however, no infective third-stage larvae were produced. Larval flea infection increased with an increase in the moisture content of sand from 2% to 7% and of sandy clay from 7% to 12%. Larval flea infection was also obtained on turf containing dauer larvae. Nematode penetration of cocoons with invasion of prepupal and pupal fleas was apparent.     

水热因子对沙漠地区土壤呼吸的影响

利用Li-6400-09土壤呼吸室和Li-6400便携式光合测定仪,在植物生长季对腾格里沙漠东南缘植被区和流沙区的土壤呼吸进行了连续测定,并分析了温度和水分对土壤呼吸的影响.结果表明:(1)植被区和流沙区土壤呼吸速率的日变化特征相似,即夜间土壤呼吸速率保持在较低的水平,而白天则呈现单峰变化趋势;而季节变化趋势明显不同,即植被区内的土壤呼吸有明显的季节变化,流沙则没有明显的季节变化;(2) 植被区和流沙区0～5cm土壤含水量与土壤呼吸速率均呈显著的线性关系,但植被区的相关性好于流沙区.当0～5cm土壤含水量大于测定期间的平均值 (植被区为6.78%、流沙区6.94%)时,植被区和流沙区的土壤呼吸速率都明显高于土壤含水量小于平均值时的土壤呼吸速率,其土壤呼吸速率平均值之比分别为:2.6、1.5;(3) 土壤呼吸速率与地表5cm处土壤温度呈显著的指数关系,当土壤含水量小于测定期间的平均值时,植被区与流沙区的Q10值分别为1.23和1.43;当土壤含水量大于测定期间的平均值时,植被区与流沙区的Q10值分别为2.23和1.72.由此可见,土壤水分不仅影响了土壤呼吸速率的大小,而且还影响了土壤呼吸速率的温度敏感性.     

Reduced leaching of the herbicide MCPA after bioaugmentation with a formulated and stored Sphingobium sp.

The use of pesticides on sandy soils and on many non-agricultural areas entails a potentially high risk of water contamination. This study examined leaching of the herbicide 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) after bioaugmentation in sand with differently formulated and stored Sphingobium sp. T51 and at different soil moisture contents. Dry formulations of Sphingobium sp. T51 were achieved by either freeze drying or fluidised bed drying, with high initial cell viability of 67–85 %. Storage stability of T51 cells was related to formulation excipient/carrier and storage conditions. Bacterial viability in the fluidised bed-dried formulations stored at 25 °C under non-vacuum conditions was poor, with losses of at least 97 % within a month. The freeze-dried formulations could be stored substantially longer, with cell survival rates of 50 %, after 6 months of storage at the same temperature under partial vacuum. Formulated and long-term stored Sphingobium cells maintained their MCPA degradation efficacy and reduced MCPA leaching as efficiently as freshly cultivated cells, by at least 73 % when equal amounts of viable cells were used. The importance of soil moisture for practical field bioaugmentation techniques is discussed.     

Infection of Pratylenchus penetrans by Nematode-pathogenic fungi

Eleven fungal isolates were tested in agar dishes for pathogenicity to Pratylenchus penetrans. Of the fungi that produce adhesive conidia, Hirsutella rhossiliensis was a virulent pathogen; Verticillium balanoides, Drechmeria coniospora, and Nematoctonus sp. were weak or nonpathogens. The trapping fungi, Arthrobotrys dactyloides, A. oligospora, Monacrosporium dlipsosporum, and M. cionopagum, killed most of the P. penetrans adults and juveniles added to the fungus cultures. An isolate of Nematoctonus that forms adhesive knobs trapped only a small proportion of the nematodes. In 17-cm³ vials, soil moisture influenced survival of P. penetrans in the presence of H. rhossiliensis; nematode survival decreased with diminishing soil moisture. Hirsutella rhossiliensis and M. ellipsosporum were equally effective in reducing numbers of P. penetrans by 24-25% after 4 days in sand. After 25 days in soil artificially infested with H. rhossiliensis, numbers of P. penetrans were reduced by 28-53%.     

Study on optimization of moisture retention for golf green rootzone soil mixtures

Most golf course green have been constructed with pure sand or sand-based rootzone mixes. As we know, high sand content provides rapid drainage despite sand’s inefficiency in retaining moisture. However, drainage capability and water retention are both essential elements to the golf course green, and the addition of peat could increase the soil moisture retention, therefore, the research on the drainage capability and water retention of the sandy golf green has become more and more important these years. In this study, extreme vertex design was applied which is one of the mixture experiment designs widely used in mixture experiments, the study investigated the effects of the thirteen different rootzone soil mixtures using middle-coarse, fine sand, very fine sand plus silt and clay as well as peat as the materials under three kinds of golf green profile (1-layer profile, 2-layer profile, 3-layer profile) conditions on the water retention of green rootzone. Through the qualitative, quantitative and optimization analysis of water retention capability of the sandy golf green, evidence a basis for choice of green profiles and rootzone matrix could be provided. And the significantly correlative regression model was established between the moisture retention and components of rootzone soil mixture. In addition, the order of factor contribution ratio, effect of single and double factor and optimization of the model were analyzed in detail. The results were as follows: both green profile and soil mixture, which had interaction of each other, had significant effects on soil moisture retention. Additional attributes include high porosity and greater water holding capacity than sand, and the higher content of peat, fine sand plus silt and clay, the better water retention. The mixtures had much higher water content in 1-layer profile than that in the other two profiles. There was significantly higher water content in 2-layer profile for pure sand mixtures (A–E) and low peat mixture (F) than that in 3-layer profile, while there was no higher water content for other 7 high peat mixtures (G–M) (>5%) in 2-layer than that in 3-layer profiles. The significance of key factors in rootzone soil mixture on moisture retention were: very fine sand plus silt and clay > peat > middle-coarse > fine sand. According to the moisture retention 15–25% specification of USGA (United States Golf Association), the optimal soil mixture in 1-layer profile was: middle-coarse 71.4–73.5%; fine sand 17.8–21.5%; very fine sand plus silt and clay 6.8–8.4%; peat 0–1%. The optimal soil mixture in 2-layer profile was: middle-coarse 65.0–73.4%; fine sand 17.8–20.5%; very fine sand plus silt and clay 7.5–8.9%; peat 0.2–6.3%. The optimal soil mixture in 3-layer profile was: middle-coarse 62.3– 73.9%; fine sand 17.7–21.4%; very fine sand plus silt and clay 7.3–10.7%; peat 0–6.3%. These optimal recipes took through the limitation of previous research, which were practically important to golf green soil selection and profile design. Thus, both proportion and interaction should be considered when we choose the soil mixture.     

Quantitative genetics of oviposition behaviour and interactions among oviposition traits in the sand cricket

We performed a quantitative genetic study of oviposition behaviours and oviposition traits in the sand cricket Gryllus firmus. Egg survival in crickets depends on the depth at which they are inserted into the soil with the ovipositor. We examined whether egg depth depends on ovipositor length alone, or on both morphological and behavioural traits associated with oviposition. Heritability estimates were high (h² >0.5) for ovipositor length and small (h²=0.2) for oviposition behaviours. Negative genetic correlations between ovipositor length and some behavioural traits (digging depth and the behavioural component of egg depth) indicated compensation between oviposition traits on egg depth. Because of behavioural compensation, females with different ovipositor lengths subject to stabilizing selection on egg depth could have equal fitnesses. Females laid their eggs deeper, and their eggs were marginally more evenly distributed in dry than in wet sand. This suggests adaptive phenotypic plasticity in laying behaviour, but may also result from physical constraints of the substrate on the insertion of the ovipositor. The absence of significant between-family variation in oviposition traits in response to sand moisture indicates low evolutionary potential for phenotypic plasticity in oviposition traits according to soil moisture. In highly unpredictable environments, females could spread the risk of desiccation by laying eggs at different depths independently of environmental conditions (bet hedging). Our results show significant additive genetic influences on the ability of a female to spread risks as measured by genetic variation in egg distribution, suggesting that a bet-hedging strategy of egg laying has the potential to evolve in this population. Copyright 2002 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.     

雅鲁藏布江高寒河谷流动沙地适生植物种筛选和恢复效果

通过4a的人工模拟飞播试验研究(2008—2011年),观测了北方优良沙生植物种和西藏乡土沙生植物种在雅鲁藏布江中游高寒河谷流动沙地上的出苗、保存、生长和繁殖情况,筛选和确定了西藏高寒流动沙地人工模拟飞播的适生植物种。结果表明:籽蒿、花棒、沙拐枣、杨柴和砂生槐在高寒河谷流动沙地的适应性较好。籽蒿在播后第2年便有花序和种子出现,花棒和沙拐枣在第3年开花结实,籽蒿、花棒和沙拐枣均能完成生活史。籽蒿的再繁殖能力较弱,花棒和沙拐枣的再繁殖能力较强。不同类型沙丘的形态特征对人工模拟飞播效果影响较大,最适宜型(第Ⅰ类)流动沙地的人工模拟飞播效果最好,植被盖度达35%;较适宜型(第Ⅱ类)流动沙地的效果较好,植被盖度达30%;不适宜型(第Ⅲ类)流动沙地的效果最差,植被盖度尚不足10%;基本适宜型(第Ⅳ类)流动沙地的效果较差,但采用沿等高线人工脚踩回头撒播法,植被盖度可达20%。不同沙丘部位的人工模拟飞播效果差异明显。