The genetic population structure of Buthus occitanus (Scorpiones: Buthidae) across the Strait of Gibraltar: calibrating a molecular clock using nuclear allozyme variation

I assess here the importance of the Strait of Gibraltar as a barrier to gene flow for populations of the scorpion Buthus occitanus . This polytypic buthid scorpion occurs in Europe and in North Africa where it is morphologically more diverse. The phylogenetic relationship between B. occitanus populations across the Strait of Gibraltar is investigated by nuclear allozymes analysis (15 loci scored). Phylogenetic analysis based on estimated gene frequency data results in a tree topology that divides the populations into three clades, i.e. a European, an Atlas (= Morocco samples) and a Tell-Atlas clade (= Tunisian samples). The Tell-Atlas clade grouped with the European clade with a rather high bootstrap support of 70%. Within these clades low levels of genetic variability are observed. Calibrating a molecular clock under the assumption that the European populations are autochthonous and have been isolated from the North African for at least 5.33 Myr reveals a divergence rate of 0.060 genetic distance (D) per Myr estimated between European and Moroccan samples and 0.036D Myr⁻¹ between European and Tunisian samples, respectively.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 81 , 519–534.     

Did Polyommatus icarus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) have distinct glacial refugia in southern Europe? Evidence from population genetics

Pleistocene climatic oscillations strongly influenced the genetic composition of many species which are often divided into several genetic lineages. In this context, we studied the allozymes of a common and widely distributed butterfly, the common blue Polyommatus icarus, over a large part of Europe. The species had a rather high genetic diversity within populations with a strikingly high mean number of alleles per locus (2.98). In contrast, differentiation between populations was very low ( F _ST: 0.0187). Only a marginal trend of decline in genetic diversity from the south to the north was observed. Isolation-by-distance existed on a European scale ( r =  0.826), but not at a regional level. Regional differentiation between populations in western Germany was extremely low ( F _ST: 0.0041). It is probable that P. icarus was widely distributed in the Mediterranean region during the last ice age and expanded into central Europe in the postglacial period without major genetic erosion. Moderate present and past gene flow in an intact metapopulation structure may have occurred on local, regional and perhaps even continental scales.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 80 , 529–538.     

Is the last glaciation the only relevant event for the present genetic population structure of the meadow brown butterfly Maniola jurtina (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)?

Phylogeographical studies are available for a considerable number of European species, but few analyses exist for temperate species with very large and fairly continuous populations that are also absent from Northern Europe. Therefore, we studied the butterfly Maniola jurtina as a model for this group. The species has two major genetic lineages (mean genetic distance between lineages: 0.033; F _CT: 0.052), most probably evolving in glacial differentiation centres in the western and eastern Mediterranean. The onset of this differentiation might have been the beginning of the last glacial stage maximum some 40 kyr bp . A hybrid zone between these two lineages exists in western Central Europe. No genetic substructures have been found within the two lineages ( F _SC: 0.017) and average genetic distances are very small. Therefore, it is highly probable that postglacial expansion was of the phalanx type. There is, at most, very limited differentiation at regional and local scales. However, the genetic diversity within populations is high (means: A : 2.68; H _E: 17.2%; P : 78%), as would be predicted for such a common species. Comparison of these results with a published allozyme analysis revealed a similar phylogeographical pattern, but lower genetic diversity in the latter. Morphological patterns of wings and genitalia show similar geographical patterns as allozyme data.   © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 85 , 419–431.     

Genetic diversity and phylogeography of the European roe deer: the refuge area theory revisited

The extant taxa of central and northern Europe are commonly believed to derive from Pleistocene ancestors, who moved to the north from three separate glacial refugia: the Iberian and Italian peninsulae, as well as the southern Balkans. The issue of postglacial dispersal patterns was addressed through the investigation of population structure and phylogeography of the European roe deer, Capreolus capreolus . The genetic diversity in 376 individuals representing 14 allegedly native populations across their European range was assessed, using ten autosomal microsatellite loci and restriction fragment length polymorphisms of the mitochondrial D-loop and NADH dehydrogenase 1 gene segments. Our results suggest the existence of three major genetic lineages of roe deer in Europe. One comprises populations in the south-western limit of the species' distribution (i.e. Iberia), where an internal substructure splits a northern from a southern sublineage. A second lineage includes populations of southern and eastern Europe, as well as a separate sublineage sampled in central-southern Italy, where the existence of the subspecies Capreolus c. italicus was supported. In central-northern Europe, a third lineage is present, which appeared genetically rather homogeneous, although admixed, and equally divergent from both the eastern and western lineages. Current patterns of intraspecific genetic variation suggest that postglacial recolonization routes of this cervid to northern Europe could be due to range expansion from one or more refugia in central-eastern Europe, rather than proceeding from the Mediterranean areas.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 88 , 85–100.     

Fluvial range expansion, allopatry, and parallel evolution in a Danubian snail lineage (Neritidae: Theodoxus)

The snails Theodoxus danubialis and Theodoxus prevostianus form a single clade native to freshwaters of south-eastern Europe whose inter- and intraspecific relationships remain unresolved. The present study utilized a phylogeographical approach to clarify the relationship of these species as well as to reconstruct the evolutionary and demographic history of populations in the western portion of their range. Phylogenetic, population genetic, and nested clade analyses reveal a clade that has distributed itself upriver from a lower Danube River source population and become genetically distinct primarily through range expansion and localized allopatric divergence. Notably, this geographical pattern is replicated phylogenetically in the form of two cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO I) lineages that are present simultaneously in individual snails. Haplotypes from polymorphic individuals form two distinct clades, both of which show phylogenetic and nucleotide substitution patterns consistent with a mitochondrial origin, and whose common ancestor must have occurred in a lower Danube source population. Separated allopatrically from their Danubian relatives, populations of T. danubialis in northern Italy have also undergone substantial range expansion, much more recently than Danube watershed lineages. In addition to repeated patterns of range expansion, parallelism is found in T. prevostianus , which is shown to be a nonmonophyletic taxon of remarkable morphological and ecological similarity.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 90 , 603–617.     

Phylogeography of five Polytrichum species within Europe

Using allozymes and microsatellites we have analysed the genetic structure among European populations for several Polytrichum species to infer relevant factors, such as historical events or gene flow, that have shaped their genetic structure. As we observed low levels of genetic differentiation among populations, and no decreasing levels of genetic variation with increasing latitude within most of the examined species, no genetic evidence was obtained for a step-wise recolonization of Europe from southern refugia after the latest glacial period for P. commune , P. uliginosum , P. formosum and P. piliferum . The near absence of population substructuring within these species does indicate that extensive spore dispersal is the most important factor determining the genetic structure among European Polytrichum populations. Gene flow levels have apparently been sufficient to prevent genetic differentiation among populations caused by genetic drift, and to wipe out any genetic structure caused by the postglacial recolonization process. On the other hand, increased genetic differentiation of alpine P. formosum populations suggests that mountain ranges might restrict gene flow significantly among Polytrichum populations. In contrast to most examined Polytrichum species, P. juniperinum showed high levels of genetic differentiation and a profound genetic structure. Assuming that gene flow is not more restricted in P. juniperinum , these findings suggest that this species has recolonized Europe after the latest glacial period from two different refugia, one possibly being the British Isles.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 2003, 78, 203–213.     

Morphotypes,varieties, or subspecies?: genetic diversity and differentiation of four Saintpaulia (Gesneriaceae) morphotypes from the East Usambara Mountains,Tanzania

Saintpaulia (H. Wendl.) is a forest-dependent, endangered plant genus endemic to Tanzania and Kenya. The taxonomy of Saintpaulia from the Usambara Mountains and adjacent lowlands in north-eastern Tanzania is problematic because of the morphological similarity of the species and the presence of considerable intraspecific variation. Conventional molecular phylogenetic methods have failed to reveal the genetic structure of this Saintpaulia complex. In this study, we assessed the genetic composition of 12 Saintpaulia populations, representing four different morphotypes, from the East Usambara Mountains using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. Relatively high genetic diversities were observed within populations (mean h  = 0.320), indicating their adaptive potential. Little genetic differentiation amongst populations (mean F _st  = 0.063) and the genetic divergence of the rosulate and trailing morphotypes support the hypothesis of ongoing divergent evolution within the East Usambara metapopulation(s) of Saintpaulia .  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 157 , 347–355.     

Conflicting patterns of genetic and morphological variation in European Gentianella section Gentianella

Genetics in European Gentianella Moench sect. Gentianella were investigated using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) nrDNA, trn L-F cpDNA and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLP) fingerprint data to analyse relationships within the section. Both a cladistic and a phenetic approach, as well as nonhierarchical analysis (PCA) and partitioning of molecular variance (AMOVA), were used. Sequence data did not resolve groups within the section. They reflected, however, geographical isolation between central European and eastern Carpathian ( G. lutescens and G. bulgarica ) as well as Caucasian samples ( G. caucasea ). AFLP data revealed a strong differentiation within G. germanica between populations of the Alps and north-western middle Europe, although there is hardly any morphological differentiation of taxonomic significance. Morphological similarities between G. aspera and G. pilosa were not reflected in genetics, and no support was found for G. aspera . Genetic similarities were not in line with morphology in G. lutescens and G. bulgarica . AFLP data only partly resolve relationships among taxa. High genetic similarities, as well as partitioning of molecular variance among taxa/populations of eastern middle Europe ( G. austriaca , G. bohemica , G. germanica , G. stiriaca ) and intermediate morphological characters in G. bohemica and G. stiriaca , might indicate reticulate evolution. The overall low sequence divergence within the section points to a very young origin of all taxa.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 148 , 175–187.     

Phylogeography of the last surviving populations of Rhodian and Anatolian fallow deer (Dama dama dama L., 1758)

The European fallow deer ( Dama dama dama ) is one of the most widespread cervids, and its distribution has been heavily affected by man. At present, only one wild autochthonous population is reputed to survive in Anatolia, but its census size is dramatically decreasing. This means that a significant portion of the ancestral genetic diversity of this taxon is seriously threatened. In the present study, a portion of the mitochondrial DNA (D-loop) in 37 D. d. dama specimens from three Mediterranean sites, Turkey, the island of Rhodes (Greece), and the Italian Peninsula, and seven individuals of the Persian fallow deer, Dama dama mesopotamica , was sequenced, and the results from the data analysis are interpreted in light of current archaeozoological and biogeographical knowledge. We conclude that: (1) D. d. mesopotamica is strongly differentiated from D. d. dama , confirming the results of previous genetic studies and (2) the Rhodian populations of D. d. dama , founded by humans in Neolithic times, possess a set of mitochondrial lineages, found in no other study populations. The persistence of these haplotypes is particularly significant because human-mediated processes (e.g. domestication) usually result in genetic depletion and erosion of an ancestral genetic pool. In the case of the Rhodes' population of fallow deer, we hypothesize that, during the foundation of this population, humans unknowingly preserved a remarkable portion of the original genetic diversity of the source population(s).  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 835–844.     

Little genetic differentiation across Europe between early-flowering and late-flowering populations of the rapidly declining orchid Neotinea ustulata

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) was used to characterize genetic diversity of the endangered Burnt Orchid, Neotinea (formerly Orchis ) ustulata . Fingerprinting of Estonian and British populations revealed surprisingly little genetic differentiation between populations but larger amounts of diversity within populations, especially in Britain. The resulting mean F _st value of 0.51 is unusually high for an orchid species. Much of the variation follows a west–east cline across Europe, whereas the much-discussed early- and late-flowering taxa of N. ustulata are considered insufficiently distinct to be viewed as separate subspecies. The later flowering N. ustulata var. aestivalis probably evolved independently on two or three occasions, each time diverging from the earlier flowering nominate race. The identity of the genes underpinning phenology in the species, and the potential selective advantages of phenological divergence, merit further study. Overall genetic diversity within populations is sufficiently high to render impoverishment an unlikely cause of their recent, precipitous decline.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 87 , 13–25.     

Phylogeography and conservation genetics of endangered European Margaritiferidae (Bivalvia: Unionoidea)

Margaritifera margaritifera and M. auricularia are among the most endangered freshwater mussels in the world, and the only species of the genus found in Europe. Our genetic study explores allozymic variability (27 loci) and differentiation at the mitochondrial sequence level (partial COI and 16S rRNA gene sequences). The Spanish M. auricularia population showed genetic parameters of variation that were of the same order as those of other freshwater molluscs (though at the lower end of the range), probably permitting its potential recovery. The difference between this species and M. margaritifera was clearly established (ten diagnostic allozymic loci, Nei = 0.462, and mean nucleotide divergence around 9.4%). The M. margaritifera populations analysed showed a certain degree of population genetic structure (according to allozyme data) that was not, however, related to a geographical cline. Nevertheless, two mitochondrial lineages (albeit very closely related) were identified: a northern lineage extending from Ireland to the Kola Peninsula including the western Atlantic coast, and a second cluster distributed from Ireland to the Iberian Peninsula. The phylogenetic relationships between these two species and other related taxa were established. The putative M. m. durrovensis could be considered an 'ecophenotype'. Palaeobiogeographical scenarios are presented and indicate unexpected 'recent' gene flow between M. margaritifera populations that were theoretically isolated in the early Tertiary.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 2003, 78, 235–252.     

Biogeographical connections between the Maghreb and the Mediterranean peninsulas of southern Europe

The glacial–interglacial cycles have caused severe range modifications of species' distributions. In Europe, thermophilic species had to retreat into geographically distinct southern refugia during glaciations. This process produced strong genetic imprints, which are still detectable by the present pattern of genetic differentiation and the distribution of regional diversity. To reveal the biogeographical imprints in the western Mediterranean, we analysed 26 populations of the butterfly Maniola jurtina spread over large areas of its European and North African distribution range. The samples were analysed using allozyme electrophoresis. We detected three genetic groups, divided into Western Europe, Central/Eastern Europe, and Italy with the Maghreb. The North African samples randomly cluster within the Italian samples. Even the population sampled in Morocco is genetically closely related to these samples and not to the geographically neighbouring Iberian ones. Parameters of genetic diversity showed similar values over the whole study area. The observed genetic pattern reflects possible glacial refugia in Europe located in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans. For North Africa and Italy, our data reveal a colonization of Africa originating from Italy.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 98 , 693–703.     

Phylogeny and historical demography of economically important rodents of the genus Arvicanthis (Mammalia: Muridae) from the Nile Valley: of mice and men

The present study clarified the taxonomy, phylogeny and historical demography of semicommensal Nile rats ( Arvicanthis ) from the Nile Valley in Sudan. Nile rats are important crop pests and zoonotic disease reservoirs and are closely associated with agricultural settlements in the Nile Valley. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete cytochrome b gene (1140 bp) of 23 individuals from six localities in Sudan (from two previously recognized species, Arvicanthis niloticus and Arvicanthis testicularis ), supported the existence of only a single species, A. niloticus , from the Nile Valley. Historical demography of the Sudanese Nile Valley population inferred from mismatch coefficients indicated that an exponential population expansion event occurred approximately 144 000–288 000 years ago, corresponding in time with early human expansion and colonization from Africa to the Middle East, Europe, and the world. The inferred high level of gene flow and large size of Sudanese Nile populations of A. niloticus is consistent with historically recent (300 years ago) exponential human population growth and intense agricultural activity inferred from archaeological and historical evidence. Two African Arvicanthis clades were well supported by the broader phylogenetic analysis: (1) A. niloticus , Arvicanthis abyssinicus and Arvicanthis neumanni and (2) Arvicanthis rufinus and Arvicanthis ansorgei from western Africa. Within the first clade, divergence between lineages of A. niloticus s.s. from west and north-east Africa (8.9%) suggests specific recognition, but sampling of geographically intermediate localities is required. Based on hypothesized palaeodrainage and palaeoclimatic patterns, we propose a simple model for speciation of Arvicanthis in Africa.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 641–655.     

Microsatellite DNA analysis of northern pike (Esox lucius L.) populations: insights into the genetic structure and demographic history of a genetically depauperate species

The northern pike Esox lucius L. is a freshwater fish exhibiting pronounced population subdivision and low genetic variability. However, there is limited knowledge on phylogeographical patterns within the species, and it is not known whether the low genetic variability reflects primarily current low effective population sizes or historical bottlenecks. We analysed six microsatellite loci in ten populations from Europe and North America. Genetic variation was low, with the average number of alleles within populations ranging from 2.3 to 4.0 per locus. Genetic differentiation among populations was high (overall θ_ST = 0.51; overall ρ_ST = 0.50). Multidimensional scaling analysis of genetic distances between populations and spatial analysis of molecular variance suggested a single phylogeographical race within the sampled populations from northern Europe, whereas North American and southern European populations were highly distinct. A population from Ireland was monomorphic at all loci, presumably reflecting founder events associated with introduction of the species to the island in the sixteenth century. Bayesian analysis of demographic parameters showed differences in θ (a product of effective population size and mutation rate) among populations from large and small water bodies, but the relative differences in θ were smaller than expected, which could reflect population subdivision within the larger water bodies. Finally, the analyses showed drastic population declines on a time scale of several thousand years within European populations, which we ascribe to either glacial bottlenecks or postglacial founder events.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 84 , 91–101.     

Intraspecific vicariant history and the evolution of adaptive morphological diversity in a fish species (Osmerus mordax)

Vicariant geographic isolation and resource partitioning have long been independently identified as processes contributing to the morphological divergence of closely-related species. However, little is known about the extent to which vicariant history influences the adaptive ecological divergence associated with resource partitioning and trophic specialization within species. The present study thus quantified the contribution of vicariant historical genetic divergence to the adaptive contemporary morphological divergence of intraspecific feeding specialists in the Rainbow smelt (Pisces: Osmerus mordax ). This species is characterized by the polyphyletic origin of two lacustrine feeding specialists originating in two intraspecific lineages associated with independent glacial refuges. The historical genetic segregation was initiated approximately 350 000 years ago, whereas the lacustrine trophic segregation arose within the past 10 000 years. Wild caught lacustrine smelt populations were grouped a priori based on known historical genetic identities (Acadian and Atlantic mitochondrial DNA clades) and contemporary feeding specializations (microphageous and macrophageous morphotypes). The present study demonstrated that independent suites of correlated morphological traits are associated with either vicariant history or contemporary feeding specializations. Second, functionally-similar feeding specialists exhibit distinct morphologies resulting largely from vicariant historical processes. Although, the evolutionary processes producing historical phenotypes remains unknown, the results obtained demonstrate how adaptive radiation associated with ecological resource partitioning and feeding specializations can be strongly influenced by intraspecific phenotypic diversification resulting from relatively recent vicariant histories.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 97 , 140–151.     

Genetic cohesion of Eresus walckenaeri (Araneae, Eresidae) in the eastern Mediterranean

The eresid spider genus Eresus is morphologically and ecologically conservative. At least three species occur in Europe. However, deep genetic divergence among geographical samples within two species, E. cinnaberinus and E. sandaliatus , may suggest more cryptic species. In the present study we investigate the genetic cohesion of the third species, Eresus walckenaeri , throughout its eastern Mediterranean distribution range, relative to the E. cinnaberinus–E. sandaliatus species complex. Eresus walckenaeri specimens were monophyletic. Genetic discreteness of E. walckenaeri in a region of sympatry with its sister species in Greece provides evidence for species integrity of E. walckenaeri within the European Eresus species complex. Eresus walckenaeri exhibited high concordance between geographical location and mtDNA genealogy. Two major phylogeographical clades were found in the Greek–Turkish and Syrian–Israel parts of the investigated area, respectively (∼6.5% sequence divergence). Concordance between geography and genetic divergence was further observed between Aegean island samples and their corresponding Greek and Turkish mainland samples, suggesting regional subdivision with gradual but potentially high dispersal propensity. Monophyly and limited regional distribution indicate Mediterranean endemic origin.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 86 , 1–9.     

Phylogeography of a host-specific insect: genetic structure of Ips typographus in Europe does not reflect past fragmentation of its host

The phylogeography of the bark beetle Ips typographus was assessed using five microsatellite markers. Twenty-eight populations were sampled throughout Europe on the host tree Picea abies . I. typographus showed very low levels of genetic diversity, and the study revealed a lack of genetic structure across Europe. No significant barrier to gene flow was found, even though P. abies has a fragmented distribution. A weak but significant effect of isolation by distance was found. These results suggest a high dispersal capacity of I. typographus , which leads to low genetic differentiation between populations. Its high dispersal capacity is likely to have prevented I. typographus from developing important local adaptations to its host, which would have influenced its genetic structure. The nuclear data was compared to previously published mitochondrial data that showed strong differentiation between Central–Northern European populations and Russian–Baltic populations, and a founder effect in Scandinavia, probably reflecting the postglacial history of I. typographus . Discrepancies between nuclear and mitochondrial markers could be due to the maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA, and to sex-biased dispersal in I. typographus . The overall low genetic diversity observed on both markers on a large geographical scale is discussed. © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 90 , 239–246.     

Glacial history of Saxifraga paniculata (Saxifragaceae): molecular biogeography of a disjunct arctic-alpine species from Europe and North America

The molecular biogeography of the disjunctly distributed and morphologically highly variable species Saxifraga paniculata Mill. was analysed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and chloroplast microsatellites. The study comprised 77 samples from mountain regions in Europe and North America throughout the complete range of distribution. AFLP data revealed clear genetic differentiation between samples from the Arctic, the Caucasus, and the eastern European mountains. Samples from the Alps were divided into two groups. One group clustered with the samples from central Europe and the Pyrenees, whereas another group with individuals from southern Norway. AFLP diversity was lowest in the Arctic and highest in the Alps. Chloroplast microsatellite analysis revealed eight haplotypes but no unequivocal phylogeographical pattern. However, haplotype diversity was highest in the Alps and central Europe whereas, in the Arctic, only few widespread haplotypes could be found. The results indicate in situ survival of S. paniculata in the Caucasus, the eastern European mountains, and the Alps. The Arctic has presumably been colonized postglacially from North American refugia south of the ice shield. Southern Norway and the Pyrenees have most likely been colonized from two phylogeographically different groups in the Alps. The origin of the central European samples remains ambiguous. In situ survival seems to be as possible as several postglacial recolonization events from the Alps. The obtained molecular data clearly support the subdivision of S. paniculata into three subspecies: ssp. cartilaginea from the Caucasus, ssp. laestadii from northern Norway, Iceland, and North America, and ssp. paniculata from the other geographical regions.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 385–398.     

Evidence of a complex phylogeographic structure in the common dormouse,Muscardinus avellanarius (Rodentia: Gliridae)

This is the first mitochondrial phylogeography of the common dormouse, Muscardinus avellanarius (Linnaeus, 1758), a hibernating rodent strictly protected in Europe (Habitat Directive, annex IV; Bern Convention, annex III). The 84 individuals of M. avellanarius, sampled throughout the distributional range of the species, have been sequenced at the mitochondrial DNA gene (cytochrome b, 704 base pairs). The results revealed two highly divergent lineages, with an ancient separation around 7.7 Mya and a genetic divergence of 7.7%. Lineage 1 occurs in Western Europe (France, Belgium, and Switzerland) and Italy, and lineage 2 occurs in Central–Northern Europe (Poland, Germany, Latvia, and Lithuania), on the Balkan Peninsula, and in Turkey. Furthermore, these two lineages are subdivided into five sublineages genetically isolated with a strong geographical association. Therefore, lineage 1 branches into two further sublineages (Western European and Italian), whereas lineage 2 contained three sublineages (Central–Northern European, Turkish, and Balkan). We observed low genetic diversity within the sublineages, in contrast to the significant level of genetic differentiation between them. The understanding of genetic population structure is essential for identifying units to be conserved. Therefore, these results may have important implications for M. avellanarius conservation. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 648–664.     

Increased molecular divergence of two endemic Trachelipus (Isopoda,Oniscidea) species from Greece reveals patterns not congruent with current taxonomy

In the present study, we employed three mitochondrial DNA genetic markers in a phylogenetic analysis aiming at the delineation of the relationships amongst nominal Trachelipus kytherensis populations, as well as between populations of this species and of Trachelipus aegaeus and a new form, occurring syntopically with the latter. Both the phylogenetic analysis and the genetic distances separating populations, show the presence of several distinct and well differentiated clades that undermine the monophyly of T. kytherensis. On the other hand, despite the insular distribution of T. aegaeus populations, their divergence is low and the monophyly of this taxon can be rescued by the inclusion of two more insular populations previously assigned to T. kytherensis. The patterns of genetic divergence among clades are only partially congruent with the geographic distribution of populations. The validity of taxonomic characters used so far in the genus appears to be questionable; therefore, a more comprehensive phylogenetic study at a population level is deemed necessary for understanding the divergence of Trachelipus lineages. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 95 , 361–370.