Temporal variations in growth and reproduction of Tedania anhelans and Chondrosia reniformis in the North Adriatic Sea

Most works concerning growth and reproduction of Mediterranean sponges have been performed in the oligotrophic western Mediterranean while little is known about sponge dynamics in the North-western Adriatic Sea, a basin characterized by low winter temperature and eutrophy. In order to deepen our understanding of sponges in the North Adriatic Sea and verify how its peculiar trophic and physical conditions affect sponge life cycles, temporal trend of sponge cover (%) and reproductive timing of Chondrosia reniformis and Tedania (Tedania) anhelans were studied over a 1-year period looking for a possible relation with variations of temperature or food availability. In C. reniformis, although little variations of sponge cover were evidenced around the year, the number of individuals and their size increase during spring. Asexual reproduction, via drop-like propagules, mainly occurs in spring and summer, while sexual reproduction is characterized by a maximum number of oocytes in August. T. anhelans progressively grows from spring to summer and develops propagules on its surface that reach their maximum size in July. In autumn, the sponge undergoes a process of progressive shrinkage and almost disappears in winter when temperature reaches 7–8°C. Larvae occur during summer. In the North Adriatic Sea sponges have larger sizes, higher density and a wider period of oocytes production compared with the same species from the Mediterranean Sea, suggesting these differences could be due to high food availability characterizing the eutrophic Adriatic basin. On the contrary, the sharp water temperature variations and the very low winter temperature, 5–6°C lower than what has been reported for the Mediterranean Sea, regulate temporal variations in abundance and cause the disappearance of thermophile species during winter.     

Role of deep sponge grounds in the Mediterranean Sea: a case study in southern Italy

The Mediterranean spongofauna is relatively well-known for habitats shallower than 100 m, but, differently from oceanic basins, information upon diversity and functional role of sponge grounds inhabiting deep environments is much more fragmentary. Aims of this article are to characterize through ROV image analysis the population structure of the sponge assemblages found in two deep habitats of the Mediterranean Sea and to test their structuring role, mainly focusing on the demosponges Pachastrella monilifera Schmidt, 1868 and Poecillastra compressa (Bowerbank, 1866). In both study sites, the two target sponge species constitute a mixed assemblage. In the Amendolara Bank (Ionian Sea), where P. compressa is the most abundant species, sponges extend on a peculiar tabular bedrock between 120 and 180 m depth with an average total abundance of 7.3 ± 1.1 specimens m⁻² (approximately 230 gWW m⁻² of biomass). In contrast, the deeper assemblage of Bari Canyon (average total abundance 10.0 ± 0.7 specimens m⁻², approximately 315 gWW m⁻² of biomass), located in the southwestern Adriatic Sea between 380 and 500 m depth, is dominated by P. monilifera mixed with living colonies of the scleractinian Madrepora oculata Linnaeus, 1758, the latter showing a total biomass comparable to that of sponges (386 gWW m⁻²). Due to their erect growth habit, these sponges contribute to create complex three-dimensional habitats in otherwise homogenous environments exposed to high sedimentation rates and attract numerous species of mobile invertebrates (mainly echinoderms) and fish. Sponges themselves may represent a secondary substrate for a specialized associated fauna, such zoanthids. As demonstrated in oceanic environments sponge beds support also in the Mediterranean Sea locally rich biodiversity levels. Sponges emerge also as important elements of benthic–pelagic coupling in these deep habitats. In fact, while exploiting the suspended organic matter, about 20% of the Bari sponge assemblage is also severely affected by cidarid sea urchin grazing, responsible to cause visible damages to the sponge tissues (an average of 12.1 ± 1.8 gWW of individual biomass removed by grazing). Hence, in deep-sea ecosystems, not only the coral habitats, but also the grounds of massive sponges represent important biodiversity reservoirs and contribute to the trophic recycling of organic matter.     

Characteristics of the mesophotic megabenthic assemblages of the vercelli seamount (north tyrrhenian sea)

The biodiversity of the megabenthic assemblages of the mesophotic zone of a Tyrrhenian seamount (Vercelli Seamount) is described using Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) video imaging from 100 m depth to the top of the mount around 61 m depth. This pinnacle hosts a rich coralligenous community characterized by three different assemblages: (i) the top shows a dense covering of the kelp Laminaria rodriguezii; (ii) the southern side biocoenosis is mainly dominated by the octocorals Paramuricea clavata and Eunicella cavolinii; while (iii) the northern side of the seamount assemblage is colonized by active filter-feeding organisms such as sponges (sometimes covering 100% of the surface) with numerous colonies of the ascidian Diazona violacea, and the polychaete Sabella pavonina. This study highlights, also for a Mediterranean seamount, the potential role of an isolated rocky peak penetrating the euphotic zone, to work as an aggregating structure, hosting abundant benthic communities dominated by suspension feeders, whose distribution may vary in accordance to the geomorphology of the area and the different local hydrodynamic conditions.     

Note Sistematiche ed Osservazioni Fitosociologiche Sulle Laminariales del Mediterraneo Occidentale

Abstract

Laminariales from western Mediterranean Sea: taxonomical and phytosociological study. — Laminariales found in the Mediterranean Sea are: Laminaria rodriguezii Bornet, L. ochroleuca De la Pylaie, Saccorhiza polyschides Batters, Phyllaria reniformis Rostafinski, Ph. purpurascens Rostafinski. By diving technique L. rodriguezii and Ph. reniformis was collected off isles Ustica, Stromboli, Pianosa and Montecristo (Thyrrenean Sea) from 50 to 90 mts depth in the coralligenous biocoenose; L. ochroleuca and Ph. purpurascens between Scilla and Ganzirri in the straits of Messina from 45 to 85 mts depth in facies of deep rheophilous biocoenoses; S. polyschides and Ph. reniformis near Villa S. Giovanni and Messina in the facies with Ulva-Corallina-Dictyopteris of photophilous algae biocoenose. Algal vegetation associated with these species of Laminariales in the straits of Messina is characterized by Atlantic-temperate elements (Ulva olivascens, Halurus equisetifolius, Cryptopleura ramosa, Giffordia hincksiae, etc…).     

Impacts on Coralligenous Outcrop Biodiversity of a Dramatic Coastal Storm

Extreme events are rare, stochastic perturbations that can cause abrupt and dramatic ecological change within a short period of time relative to the lifespan of organisms. Studies over time provide exceptional opportunities to detect the effects of extreme climatic events and to measure their impacts by quantifying rates of change at population and community levels. In this study, we show how an extreme storm event affected the dynamics of benthic coralligenous outcrops in the NW Mediterranean Sea using data acquired before (2006–2008) and after the impact (2009–2010) at four different sites. Storms of comparable severity have been documented to occur occasionally within periods of 50 years in the Mediterranean Sea. We assessed the effects derived from the storm comparing changes in benthic community composition at sites exposed to and sheltered from this extreme event. The sites analyzed showed different damage from severe to negligible. The most exposed and impacted site experienced a major shift immediately after the storm, represented by changes in the species richness and beta diversity of benthic species. This site also showed higher compositional variability immediately after the storm and over the following year. The loss of cover of benthic species resulted between 22% and 58%. The damage across these species (e.g. calcareous algae, sponges, anthozoans, bryozoans, tunicates) was uneven, and those with fragile forms were the most impacted, showing cover losses up to 50 to 100%. Interestingly, small patches survived after the storm and began to grow slightly during the following year. In contrast, sheltered sites showed no significant changes in all the studied parameters, indicating no variations due to the storm. This study provides new insights into the responses to large and rare extreme events of Mediterranean communities with low dynamics and long-lived species, which are among the most threatened by the effects of global change.     

Distribution of recent planktonic foraminifera in surface sediments of the Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a partillay isolated ocean where excess evaporation over precipitation results in large east to west gradients in temperature and salinity. Recent planktonic foraminiferal distributions have been examined in 66 surface sediment samples from the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to mapping the frequency distribution of 16 species, the faunal data has been subjected to cluster analysis, factor analysis and species diversity analysis. The clustering of species yields assemblages that are clearly temperature related. A warm assemblage contains both tropical and subtropical elements, while the cool assemblage can be subdivided into cool-subtropical, transitional and polar-subpolar groupings. Factor analysis is used to delineate the geographic distribution of four faunal assemblages. Factor 1 is a tropical-subtropical assemblage dominated by Globigerinoiden ruber. It has its highest values in the warmer eastern basin. Transitional species (Globorotalia inflata and Globigerina bulloides) dominate factor 2 with highest values occurring in the cooler western basin. Factor 3 reflects the distribution of Neogloboquadrina dutertrei and is considered to be salinity dependent. Subpolar species dominate factor 4 (Neoglobuquadrina pachyderma and G. bulloides), with highest values occurring in the northern part of the western basin where cold bottom water is presently being formed. The Shannon-Weiner index of species diversity shows that high diversity exists over much of the western basin and immediately east of the Strait of Sicily. This region is marked by equitable environmental conditions and relatively even distribution of individuals among the species. Conversely, in areas where temperature and salinity values are more extreme, diversity values are lower and the assemblages are dominated by one or two species.     

Late Holocene deep-sea benthic foraminifera from the Sea of Marmara

The benthic foraminiferal assemblages of two cores from the late-Holocene, organic-carbon-rich and carbonate-poor, deep-sea sediments of the eastern depression of the Sea of Marmara have been studied. They were deposited under high level of primary productivity and poorly oxygenated bottom-water conditions; they show low diversity and are dominated by a group of species adapted to an infaunal life style with wide bathymetric distribution (ca. 70–2000 m) in the Mediterranean Sea. Oxygen deficiency down to about 0.5 ml/l does not seem adversely to affect the rate of reproduction of the dominant species belonging to Melonis, Chilostomella, buliminids, and bolivinitids. Their distribution is primarily controlled by substrate conditions.Faunal similarities with fossil assemblages in association with some late-Quaternary sapropels and related facies from the eastern Mediterranean basins suggest that they were deposited under palaeo-oceanographic conditions closely similar to those of the modern Sea of Marmara.     

Fishery-induced selection for slow somatic growth in European eel

Both theoretical and experimental studies have shown that fishing mortality can induce adaptive responses in body growth rates of fishes in the opposite direction of natural selection. We compared body growth rates in European eel (Anguilla anguilla) from three Mediterranean stocks subject to different fishing pressure. Results are consistent with the hypotheses that i) fast-growing individuals are more likely to survive until sexual maturity than slow-growing ones under natural conditions (no fishing) and ii) fishing can select for slow-growing individuals by removing fast-growing ones. Although the possibility of human-induced evolution seems remote for a panmictic species like such as the European eel, further research is desirable to assess the implications of the intensive exploitation on this critically endangered fish.     

Description of Spadella valsalinae sp. nov., a neo-endemic benthic chaetognath from Northern Adriatic Sea (Croatia) with remarks on its morphology, phylogeny and biogeography

We describe a new chaetognath species, Spadella valsalinae sp. nov., discovered and collected in the Northern Adriatic Sea (Pula, Croatia). S. valsalinae sp. nov. is a benthic species living at 10–12 m depth attached to the surface of roughly sorted sediment. The cosmopolitan, seagrass-inhabiting species Spadella cephaloptera Busch, 1851 was also recorded in the sampling area. Characters from comparative morphology and molecular phylogeny based on SSU rRNA (18S) sequences support a sister group relationship of S. valsalinae sp. nov. with Spadella lainezi and Spadella ledoyeri. Thus, S. valsalinae sp. nov. represents the first member in the ‘Spadella ledoyeri' complex that is not a troglophilic species. By comparison with the various known European Spadella species, we defined a specific set of morphological characters, such as the number, shape and mutual proportions of the teeth, the lateral fins, the corona ciliata, the seminal vesicles, as well as the presence of ventral adhesive papillae, which is unique for S. valsalinae sp. nov. The biogeography of Spadella members in the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Atlantic as well as their phylogenetic relationships are discussed, with the focus on processes of neo-endemism in an epeiric area like, for instance, the Northern Adriatic Sea.     

Contributo Allo Studio Fitosociologico Dei Popolamenti Algali Del Mediterraneo Orientale

Abstract

Marine phytocoenoses in the Eastern Mediterranean Setz. — In this paper a survey is given on the benthic communities observed in the Eastern Basin of the Mediterranean Sea. The investigation was carried out in 13 localities with aid of diving technique, down to 70 mt. depth. Samples at greater depths were collected with the use of a bottom-dredge. The data obtained from 56 phytoso-ciological «relevés» are shown in the 6 tables in the text. The ecological analysis has pointed out the subtropical character of the biocoenoses encoutered, due to the environmental factors. The surface Corallinaceae communities and the depth one, markedly in its precorraligenous facies, have exhibited the most conspicuous and subtropical characters. A comparative survey is carried out with the analogous formation which are found in the Western Mediterranean Basin. An attempt is made to interpret the ecological requirements of some algal species, whose distribution in the Mediterranean Sea is of particular interest. The conclusions are given as temporary assumption in view of a more detailed synthetic work to be carried out in the next years on the problems concerning the algal communities in the Mediterranean Sea.     

The impact of seawater temperature on coral growth parameters of the colonial coral Cladocora caespitosa (Anthozoa, Scleractinia) in the eastern Adriatic Sea

The scleractinian coral Cladocora caespitosa deserves a special place among the major carbonate bioconstructors of the Mediterranean Sea. Annual coral skeleton growth, coral calcification, and skeleton density of the colonial coral C. caespitosa taken from 25 locations in the eastern Adriatic Sea were analyzed and compared with annual sea surface temperatures (SST). The growth rates of the coral C. caespitosa from the 25 stations in the Adriatic Sea ranged from 1.92 to 4.19?mm per year, with higher growth rates of the investigated corallites in the southern part of the Adriatic Sea. These growth rates are similar to those measured in other areas of the Mediterranean Sea. The correlation between coral growth and sea temperatures in the Adriatic Sea is seen as follows: An X-radiograph analysis of coral growth in C. caespitosa colonies that are over 60?years old showed that higher growth rates of this coral coincided with a warmer period in the Mediterranean Sea. A positive significant correlation exists between corallite growth rates and SST and coral calcification and SST. A negative correlation exists between coral density and SST. Coral growth rates also showed a correlation with higher eutrophication caused by nearby fish farms, along with a greater depth of the investigated colonies and high bottom currents.     

Phylogeography of the red coral (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Corallium rubrum</Emphasis>): inferences on the evolutionary history of a temperate gorgonian

The red coral Corallium rubrum (Cnidaria, Octocorallia) is an exploited, long-lived sessile species from the Mediterranean Sea and the adjacent coastline in the Atlantic Ocean. Surveys of genetic variation using microsatellites have shown that populations of C. rubrum are characterized by strong differentiation at the local scale but a study of the phylogeography of this species was still lacking. Here, we used seven polymorphic microsatellite loci, together with sequence data from an intron of the elongation factor 1 (EF1) gene, to investigate the genetic structure of C. rubrum across its geographical range in the western Mediterranean Sea and in the Adriatic Sea. The EF1 sequences were also used to analyse the consequences of demographic fluctuations linked with past environmental change. Clustering analysis with microsatellite loci highlighted three to seven genetic groups with the distinction of North African and Adriatic populations; this distinction appeared significant with AMOVA and differentiation tests. Microsatellite and EF1 data extended the isolation by distance pattern previously observed for this species at the western Mediterranean scale. EF1 sequences confirmed the genetic differentiation observed between most samples with microsatellites. A statistical parsimony network of EF1 haplotypes provided no evidence of high sequence divergence among regions, suggesting no long-term isolation. Selective neutrality tests on microsatellites and EF1 were not significant but should be interpreted with caution in the case of EF1 because of the low sample sizes for this locus. Our results suggest that recent Quaternary environmental fluctuations had a limited impact on the genetic structure of C. rubrum.     

Distinct seasonality of chytrid-dominated benthic fungal communities in the neritic oceans (Bohai Sea and North Yellow Sea)

Benthic fungal diversities in Bohai Sea and North Yellow Sea were investigated using pyrosequencing of 18S rDNA. Overall, Chytridiomycota dominated, followed by Basidiomycota, Ascomycota and Cryptomycota, in terms of alpha diversities and relative abundance. The beta diversity of benthic fungi showed a significant seasonality but no regional differences, accounted for by contrasting relative abundances of Chytridiomycota and Basidiomycota. Significantly seasonal changes in Chytridiomycota and Basidiomycota assemblage structure were also observed, but not for Ascomycota and Cryptomycota. Environmental filtering was more important than water depth and geographic distance in shaping the distribution of benthic fungi in the neritic oceans. The overall fungal beta diversity co-varied with concentration of chlorophyll a, pH, and salinity, distance from land, and water depth. The assemblage structure of benthic Chytridiomycota, Basidiomycota, Ascomycota and Cryptomycota co-varied with different sets of environmental parameters, suggesting their niche differentiations in the coastal sediments.     

Looking for long-term changes in hydroid assemblages (Cnidaria,Hydrozoa) in Alboran Sea (South-Western Mediterranean): a proposal of a monitoring point for the global warming

In the last 20–30 years, the temperature of the Mediterranean Sea has increased and global warming is allowing the establishment of tropical-affinity species into more temperate zones. Sessile communities are particularly useful as a baseline for ecological monitoring; however, a lack of historical data series exists for sessile marine organisms without commercial interest. Hydroids are ubiquitous components of the benthic sessile fauna on rocky shores and have been used as bio-indicators of environmental conditions. In this study on the benthic hydroid assemblages of the Chafarinas Islands (Alboran Sea, South-Western Mediterranean), we characterized the hydroid assemblages, identified the bathymetric gradients, and compared them with a previous study carried out in 1991. Hydroid assemblages showed a significant difference both between year and among depths. Furthermore, eight species not present in 1991 were found, including two possible new species and the tropical and subtropical species Sertularia marginata. Due to its strategic position at the entrance of the Mediterranean and the existence of previous data on hydroid assemblages, the Chafarinas Islands are proposed as a possible monitoring point for entrance of Atlantic tropical species into the Mediterranean Sea.     

Deep-sea benthic foraminiferal recolonization of the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo ash layer in the South China Sea

A census count of Rose Bengal stained benthic foraminifera from the surface area on top of a 2 to 6 cm thick ashfall layer at three deep water stations along the western margin of the Philippines exhibits a unique assemblage composition of benthic foraminifera. The total number of benthic foraminifera is low and the ratio of living individuals to empty tests is high. Specific diversity is low, with a significant dominance of infaunal morphotypes including species of the genus Reophax (R. scorpiurus, R. bilocularis and R. dentaliniformis), which are regarded as successful recolonizers. Assemblages below the ash layers are diverse and contain many epifaunal suspension-feeding agglutinated and calcareous foraminifera. The 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption caused mass mortality of benthic foraminifera in a vast area of the eastern South China Sea followed by step-wise recolonization of the ash substrate. Three years after the eruption, the benthic foraminiferal community structure is still far from recovery to background levels.     

Bacterial Diversity in the South Adriatic Sea during a Strong,Deep Winter Convection Year

The South Adriatic Sea is the deepest part of the Adriatic Sea and represents a key area for both the Adriatic Sea and the deep eastern Mediterranean. It has a role in dense water formation for the eastern Mediterranean deep circulation cell, and it represents an entry point for water masses originating from the Ionian Sea. The biodiversity and seasonality of bacterial picoplankton before, during, and after deep winter convection in the oligotrophic South Adriatic waters were assessed by combining comparative 16S rRNA sequence analysis and catalyzed reporter deposition-fluorescence in situ hybridization (CARD-FISH). The picoplankton communities reached their maximum abundance in the spring euphotic zone when the maximum value of the chlorophyll a in response to deep winter convection was recorded. The communities were dominated by Bacteria, while Archaea were a minor constituent. A seasonality of bacterial richness and diversity was observed, with minimum values occurring during the winter convection and spring postconvection periods and maximum values occurring under summer stratified conditions. The SAR11 clade was the main constituent of the bacterial communities and reached the maximum abundance in the euphotic zone in spring after the convection episode. Cyanobacteria were the second most abundant group, and their abundance strongly depended on the convection event, when minimal cyanobacterial abundance was observed. In spring and autumn, the euphotic zone was characterized by Bacteroidetes and Gammaproteobacteria. Bacteroidetes clades NS2b, NS4, and NS5 and the gammaproteobacterial SAR86 clade were detected to co-occur with phytoplankton blooms. The SAR324, SAR202, and SAR406 clades were present in the deep layer, exhibiting different seasonal variations in abundance. Overall, our data demonstrate that the abundances of particular bacterial clades and the overall bacterial richness and diversity are greatly impacted by strong winter convection.     

Fish otoliths from the Pliocene Heraklion Basin (Crete Island,Eastern Mediterranean)

The Pliocene Eastern Mediterranean fish record is revealed through the study of a 60-m thick stratigraphic sequence near the village Voutes (Heraklion, Crete). Forty-two species belonging to twenty families are identified. Calcareous nannoplankton biostratigraphy places the studied sequence within the biozone MNN16a (latest Zanclean). The stratigraphic distribution of 31 species is modified. Among these, 12 species are reported for the first time in the Eastern Mediterranean Zanclean, while 19 species are first reported outside the Ionian Sea. The Voutes fish fauna presents a diversified benthic and benthopelagic assemblage filling a significant gap in the fossil record.     

Comparison of trawled vs untrawled mud seafloor assemblages of fishes and macroinvertebrates at Coquille Bank, Oregon

We report the first quantitative comparison of trawled vs untrawled mud seafloor communities off the west coast of North America. Using a manned submersible, we ran visual transects at Coquille Bank, 25 km off the central coast of Oregon, USA, including six half-hour (mean length 1184 m) transects over mud seafloors 183-361 m deep. The shallowest transects were untrawled, whereas deeper transects were heavily trawled, as evidenced by extensive trawl-door tracks. Differences between trawled and untrawled seafloor assemblages were striking. We observed 23% more fish over untrawled compared to trawled seafloors, and recorded 27 fish species on untrawled bottoms, but only 19 species on trawled seafloors. Regarding benthic invertebrates, density of individuals was 6 times greater on untrawled compared to trawled bottoms. Nonetheless, we observed 11 taxa on trawled seafloors and only 6 taxa on untrawled bottoms. Principal components analysis (PCA) defined the untrawled assemblage as characterized by sea pens, ratfish, sablefish, ronquil, slender sole, and poacher. PCA defined the trawled assemblage as characterized by seastars, hermit crabs, bigfin eelpout, Dover sole, hagfish, and shortspine thornyhead. In untrawled areas, there was no correlation between sea-pen density and total fish density, whereas in trawled areas, there was a marginally inverse correlation between the density of trawl-door tracks and total fish density. The dominant fishes and macroinvertebrates on trawled seafloors are known mobile scavengers that may aggregate along trawl-door tracks. Sea pens that dominated untrawled bottoms are sessile, slow-growing, long-lived species that are likely to recover slowly from physical disturbance. We conclude that the observed differences between trawled and untrawled communities were the result of groundfishing activities rather than local environmental differences. Given that habitat considerations for groundfish management in this region focus exclusively on rocky seafloors, it seems prudent to consider the adverse effects of bottom trawling on mud seafloor ecosystems of the continental shelf and slope.     

The ecology of the Mediterranean stony coral Cladocora caespitosa (Linnaeus, 1767) in the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea): a 30-year long story

Cladocora caespitosa is an endemic coral of the Mediterranean Sea and an important carbonate bioconstructor that adds 3D complexity to the habitat, thus increasing marine biodiversity. Despite its important role in the ecosystem, the real status of the population along most of the Mediterranean coastline is still poorly investigated and very little is known about the resilience of the species. Using non-destructive visual surveys, colonies of C. caespitosa were investigated by SCUBA diving in 2013 and 2015 at seven sites of the northern Adriatic Sea (southern part of the Gulf of Trieste). Data about colony size, index of sphericity and corallite diameter were collected. Almost all biometrical parameters differed significantly among sampling sites, showing low occurrence of the larger size classes compared to the abundance of small-sized colonies. This pattern of distribution is typical of long-lived organisms. The positively skewed colony size distribution could be due to both a high mortality rate of small colonies unable to reach larger size classes, and to a high fragmentation rate of colonies, related to a strong hydrodynamic forces. The northern Adriatic population of C. caespitosa has previously been investigated by Schiller, who reported size and abundance data of colonies from one site, at a depth range of 2–5?m. We compared these data with our findings from the same sampling site, adding new information about the ecology of C. caespitosa. After a 30-year period, the comparison shows a change in the size distribution of colonies, with a decrease of the small class and an increase of the medium class of colonies. In view of these conclusions, further assessments are required in order to evaluate the trend of the northernmost C. caespitosa population in the Mediterranean Sea.