Factors Causing Victims of Wildland Fires in Spain (1980–2010)

The worst consequence of wildland fires is the loss of human lives, a regular phenomenon over the last few decades worldwide. This work analyzes all recorded wildland fires in Spain with victims between 1980 and 2010. We classified causality causes during wildland fires to study the most frequent causes of fatalities and how they were related to regions, fire size, and extreme weather conditions (i.e., high temperature days). Trends in number of both injured and killed individuals were analyzed. We observed that the annual number of victims did not decrease in the study period. Entrapment is the most frequent cause of death within the fire suppression employees. Fire size is a key factor in the occurrence of victims because 95% of fatalities in wildland fires (not counting aerial casualties) happened in fires larger than 100 ha. High temperature days also were important because 60% of entrapments were produced in this kind of days.     

Factors Affecting Vocalization in Tengmalm’s Owl (Aegolius funereus) Fledglings during Post-Fledging Dependence Period: Scramble Competition or Honest Signalling of Need?

Begging behaviour of nestlings has been intensively studied for several decades as a key component of parent-offspring conflict. There are essentially two main theories to account for intensity of food solicitation among offspring: that intensity of begging is related to some form of scramble competition between nest mates or that it offers honest signalling of need to parents. The vast majority of studies which have addressed begging behaviour have been based on observations of, and experiments on, nestlings and have not considered begging behaviour, during the post-fledging period. Begging vocalizations in this post-fledging phase of dependence have rarely been studied, despite the importance of vocalizations as a communication method between offspring and parents, particularly for nocturnal species. We radiotracked 39 fledglings of the Tengmalm’s owl (Aegolius funereus) in two years with different availability of prey: 2010 (n = 29 fledglings) and 2011 (n = 10 fledglings) and made 1320 nightly localizations in which we recorded presence or absence of begging calls. Within years, the most important measures related to the probability of vocalization were body condition at fledging, time of night, number of surviving siblings, age and weather conditions. Begging intensity increased with age in both years; however, in the year with low prey availability fledglings vocalized significantly more often. The main factor causing these differences between years was probably the different availability of prey, affecting breeding success, post-fledging behaviour, and thus also both short- and long-term needs of offspring. We believe that our results suggest honest signalling of their fledgling’s need.     

Alternation of Factors Affecting Bacterioplankton Abundance in the Danube River Floodplain (Kopački Rit, Croatia)

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the influence of different phases of the hydrological cycle on the abundance of colony-forming units (CFU) of bacteria in the Kopački Rit floodplain and to assess temporal and spatial variations in the proportion of eutrophic and oligotrophic bacteria (r- and K-strategists) as a biological indicator of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) availability. Determination of bacterial abundance was performed with abiotic variables (water temperature, depth, Secchi disc transparency, dissolved oxygen, pH, electrical conductivity, ammonia, nitrates+nitrites, total nitrogen and total phosphorus) and one biotic (chl-a) variable, and dimensionality reduced with principal component analysis (PCA). The component scores were used as independent variables in a multiple regression and the relationship between scores (indirect variables) and bacterial abundance was examined. An elevated bacterial abundance was observed during the limnophase (floodplain isolated from the river) and potamophase (flood). During the limnophase also the highest chl-a concentrations were found and in Sakadaš Lake during September 2003 significantly higher numbers of eutrophic than oligotrophic bacteria emerged (p = 0.026). During potamophase the opposite state was established. Elevated bacterial abundance occurred in parallel with minimal chl-a concentrations and during July 2004 in the Čonakut Channel a significantly higher number of oligotrophic than eutrophic bacteria emerged (p < 0.001). Differentiation in the number of eutrophic and oligotrophic bacteria suggests the existence of a higher concentration of labile DOC during September 2003 than during July 2004. Multiple regression analysis explains 13.6% of the variation in abundance of eutrophic bacteria. The regression model for oligotrophic bacteria is not significant. The results suggest two different mechanisms control bacterioplankton numbers to some extent in the Kopački Rit floodplain. In addition, two sources of DOC differentiating the quality of organic matter predominate under totally different hydrological regimes. Under these conditions, eutrophic bacteria may be partially bottom-up controlled, whereas it is not clear how the abundance of oligotrophs is controlled.     

Factors Influencing Survival of Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn, 1857) in Soil

Ditylenchus dipsaci larvae survived in soil without a host plant for at least 242 days when held at 15 C and 21 C. Larvae held at 15 C remained infective for 212 days. Moisture levels within both clayey and sandy soils did not appreciably affect recovery of larvae. Active nematodes recovered from soil are not necessarily infective. Temperatures of -12, 0 and 4 C had little adverse effect on larvae in infected leaf tissues in soil. Larvae in soil exposed to 0 C for short periods of time were not affected adversely. Recovery of larvae from sandy soil by Baermann funnels was significantly better at 24 C than at 4 C. Differences in recovery from clay soil were not significant at these temperatures.     

High Post-Capture Survival for Sharks,Rays and Chimaeras Discarded in the Main Shark Fishery of Australia?

Most sharks, rays and chimaeras (chondrichthyans) taken in commercial fisheries are discarded (i.e. returned to the ocean either dead or alive). Quantifying the post-capture survival (PCS) of discarded species is therefore essential for the improved management and conservation of this group. For all chondrichthyans taken in the main shark fishery of Australia, we quantified the immediate PCS of individuals reaching the deck of commercial shark gillnet fishing vessels and applied a risk-based method to semi-quantitatively determine delayed and total PCS. Estimates of immediate, delayed and total PCS were consistent, being very high for the most commonly discarded species (Port Jackson shark, Australian swellshark, and spikey dogfish) and low for the most important commercial species (gummy and school sharks). Increasing gillnet soak time or water temperature significantly decreased PCS. Chondrichthyans with bottom-dwelling habits had the highest PCS whereas those with pelagic habits had the lowest PCS. The risk-based approach can be easily implemented as a standard practice of on-board observing programs, providing a convenient first-step assessment of the PCS of all species taken in commercial fisheries.     

Wanted! Dead or alive: the tale of the Brown’s Grayling (Pseudochazara amymone)

The Brown’s Grayling (Pseudochazara amymone) is one of the most enigmatic and sought after species among European butterflies. Hiding its exact distribution for almost 40 years with the idea of protecting it, resulted in an increasing collector’s interest, with market prices reaching up to 1,000 euro for a single female after its discovery in Albania. Aiming to demystify this butterfly and enable entomologists and conservationists to see the species in its natural environment, we provide detailed information on its distribution in south-eastern Albania. In addition, we modelled the potential species distribution to facilitate further surveys within its potential range. The modelled range of P. amymone is highly fragmented stretching from the central part of eastern Albania to northern Greece and is strongly bound to ophiolite geological strata. The species was re-assessed as Endangered according to the IUCN criteria, with a predicted population decline due to construction of hydroelectric power plants in one of the locations. We argue that hiding valuable information regarding threatened insect species may have negative effects and we advocate publishing available distribution data so that conservation measures may be undertaken where and when necessary.     

Is the Rate of Metabolic Ageing and Survival Determined by Basal Metabolic Rate in the Zebra Finch?

The relationship between energy metabolism and ageing is of great interest because aerobic metabolism is the primary source of reactive oxygen species which is believed to be of major importance in the ageing process. We conducted a longitudinal study on captive zebra finches where we tested the effect of age on basal metabolic rate (BMR), as well as the effect of BMR on the rate of metabolic ageing (decline in BMR with age) and survival. Basal metabolic rate declined with age in both sexes after controlling for the effect of body mass, indicating a loss of functionality with age. This loss of functionality could be due to accumulated oxidative damage, believed to increase with increasing metabolic rate, c.f. the free radical theory of ageing. If so, we would expect the rate of metabolic ageing to increase and survival to decrease with increasing BMR. However, we found no effect of BMR on the rate of metabolic ageing. Furthermore, survival was not affected by BMR in the males. In female zebra finches there was a tendency for survival to decrease with increasing BMR, but the effect did not reach significance (P<0.1). Thus, the effect of BMR on the rate of functional deterioration with age, if any, was not strong enough to influence neither the rate of metabolic ageing nor survival in the zebra finches.     

Factors Affecting Haul-Out Behavior of Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) in Tidewater Glacier Inlets in Alaska: Can Tourism Vessels and Seals Coexist?

Large numbers of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) use habitat in tidewater glaciers in Alaska for pupping, breeding, and molting. Glacial fjords are also popular tourist destinations; however, visitation by numerous vessels can result in disturbance of seals during critical life-history phases. We explored factors affecting haul-out behavior of harbor seals at a glacial site frequented by tourism vessels. In 2008-10, we deployed VHF transmitters on 107 seals in Endicott Arm, Alaska. We remotely monitored presence and haul-out behavior of tagged seals and documented vessel presence with time-lapse cameras. We evaluated the influence of environmental and physical factors on the probability of being hauled out, duration of haul-out bouts, and as factors associated with the start and end of a haulout. Location, season, hour, and interactions of location by year, season, hour, and sex significantly influenced haul-out probability, as did ice, weather, and vessels. Seals were more likely to be hauled out with greater ice availability during the middle of the day, and less likely to be hauled out if vessels were present. Cruise ships had the strongest negative effect; however, most vessel types negatively affected haul-out probability. Haul-out duration was longest in association with starting on incoming tides, clear skies, no precipitation, occurring in the middle of the day, and ending in the late afternoon or evening. End of haulouts was associated with increasing cloud cover, low ice availability, and vessel presence; large-sized tourism vessels or all-vessel-types combined were significant predictors of ending a haul-out bout. Probability of being hauled out was highest in June, during pupping season. Potential disturbances of harbor seals could be reduced, enabling longer resting times for seals and fewer interruptions for nursing pups, if vessels focused the majority of visits to glacial habitat to before or after the hours of 08:00-17:00 or, less optimally, 09:00-16:00.     

Are Flying-Foxes Coming to Town? Urbanisation of the Spectacled Flying-Fox (Pteropus conspicillatus) in Australia

Urbanisation of wildlife populations is a process with significant conservation and management implications. While urban areas can provide habitat for wildlife, some urbanised species eventually come into conflict with humans. Understanding the process and drivers of wildlife urbanisation is fundamental to developing effective management responses to this phenomenon. In Australia, flying-foxes (Pteropodidae) are a common feature of urban environments, sometimes roosting in groups of tens of thousands of individuals. Flying-foxes appear to be becoming increasingly urbanised and are coming into increased contact and conflict with humans. Flying-fox management is now a highly contentious issue. In this study we used monitoring data collected over a 15 year period (1998–2012) to examine the spatial and temporal patterns of association of spectacled flying-fox (Pteropus conspicillatus) roost sites (camps) with urban areas. We asked whether spectacled flying-foxes are becoming more urbanised and test the hypothesis that such changes are associated with anthropogenic changes to landscape structure. Our results indicate that spectacled flying-foxes were more likely to roost near humans than might be expected by chance, that over the period of the study the proportion of the flying-foxes in urban-associated camps increased, as did the number of urban camps. Increased urbanisation of spectacled flying-foxes was not related to changes in landscape structure or to the encroachment of urban areas on camps. Overall, camps tended to be found in areas that were more fragmented, closer to human habitation and with more urban land cover than the surrounding landscape. This suggests that urbanisation is a behavioural response rather than driven by habitat loss.     

A conformational change in the isolated NADP(H)-binding component (dIII) of transhydrogenase induced by low pH: a reflection of events during proton translocation by the complete enzyme?

Transhydrogenase couples the reduction of NADP(+) by NADH to inward proton translocation across the bacterial (or mitochondrial) membrane. Conformational changes in the NADP(H)-binding component of the enzyme (dIII) are central to the coupling mechanism. In the "open" state, NADP(H) bound to dIII can readily exchange with nucleotides in the solvent but hydride transfer [to/from NAD(H) bound to dI] is prevented. In the "occluded" state, bound NADP(H) cannot exchange with solvent nucleotides but the hydride transfer reaction is permitted. It was previously found that the conformational state of isolated, recombinant dIII is pH dependent. At neutral pH, the protein adopts a conformation resembling the occluded state, and at low pH, it adopts a conformation resembling the open state. The crystal structure of dIII indicates that the loop E "lid" might be largely responsible for the very high affinity of the protein for NADP(H). In this paper we show, using fluorescence resonance energy transfer, that the distance between the apex of loop E of isolated dIII, and the core of the protein, increases when the solution pH is lowered. This is consistent with the view that the lid is retracted to permit NADPH release during turnover of the complete enzyme.     

Is dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) produced by the symbionts or the host in an anemone–zooxanthella symbiosis?

Many groups of tropical cnidarians including scleractinian corals, octocorals, corallimorphs, and anemones contain the tertiary sulfonium compound dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP). It is not known if the compound is synthesized by the animals, their microalgal symbionts, or derived through their diet. We determined the source of the DMSP in several species of tropical and temperate anemones using three approaches: (1) conducting comparative measurements of DMSP in aposymbiotic and zooxanthellate anemones of three species that harbor zooxanthellae, and similar measurements in one species that can harbor both zooxanthellae and zoochlorellae, (2) manipulating the presence or absence of zooxanthellae by inoculating juvenile aposymbiotic anemones (Aiptasia pallida) with their symbiont, Symbiodinium bermudense, and (3) manipulating the numbers of S. bermudense by growing aposymbiotic and zooxanthellate A. pallida in the light and the dark. DMSP was present in zooxanthellate anemones in concentrations of 3.4–15 μmol g⁻¹ fresh mass (FM). In aposymbiotic Aiptasia spp. and Anthopleura elegantissima that lacked large numbers of zooxanthellae, concentrations ranged from being undetectable to 0.43 μmol g⁻¹ FM. When aposymbiotic A. pallida were inoculated with zooxanthellae, concentrations of DMSP were an average of 4.24 μmol g⁻¹ FM after 5 weeks; DMSP was undetectable in uninoculated control animals. Aposymbiotic anemones maintained in the light or the dark for 6 weeks contained no DMSP or zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellate anemones in the light contained five times as many zooxanthellae and approximately 7.5 times as much DMSP as zooxanthellate anemones maintained in the dark. Taken together, these data show that the zooxanthellae are the sole source of DMSP in A. pallida. The trends in DMSP concentrations in other species of zooxanthellate anemones suggest that this phenomenon is not limited to A. pallida but may be more generally true for other anemones or even other cnidarians hosting species of Symbiodinium. Communicated by Biology Editor Dr. Michael Lesser     

Major Factors Affecting Incidence of Childhood Thyroid Cancer in Belarus after the Chernobyl Accident: Do Nitrates in Drinking Water Play a Role?

One of the major health consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident in 1986 was a dramatic increase in incidence of thyroid cancer among those who were aged less than 18 years at the time of the accident. This increase has been directly linked in several analytic epidemiological studies to iodine-131 (¹³¹I) thyroid doses received from the accident. However, there remains limited understanding of factors that modify the ¹³¹I-related risk. Focusing on post-Chernobyl pediatric thyroid cancer in Belarus, we reviewed evidence of the effects of radiation, thyroid screening, and iodine deficiency on regional differences in incidence rates of thyroid cancer. We also reviewed current evidence on content of nitrate in groundwater and thyroid cancer risk drawing attention to high levels of nitrates in open well water in several contaminated regions of Belarus, i.e. Gomel and Brest, related to the usage of nitrogen fertilizers. In this hypothesis generating study, based on ecological data and biological plausibility, we suggest that nitrate pollution may modify the radiation-related risk of thyroid cancer contributing to regional differences in rates of pediatric thyroid cancer in Belarus. Analytic epidemiological studies designed to evaluate joint effect of nitrate content in groundwater and radiation present a promising avenue of research and may provide useful insights into etiology of thyroid cancer.     

Greasing the wheels or a spanner in the works? Regulation of the cardiac sodium pump by palmitoylation

The ubiquitous sodium/potassium ATPase (Na pump) is the most abundant primary active transporter at the cell surface of multiple cell types, including ventricular myocytes in the heart. The activity of the Na pump establishes transmembrane ion gradients that control numerous events at the cell surface, positioning it as a key regulator of the contractile and metabolic state of the myocardium. Defects in Na pump activity and regulation elevate intracellular Na in cardiac muscle, playing a causal role in the development of cardiac hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, arrhythmias and heart failure. Palmitoylation is the reversible conjugation of the fatty acid palmitate to specific protein cysteine residues; all subunits of the cardiac Na pump are palmitoylated. Palmitoylation of the pump’s accessory subunit phospholemman (PLM) by the cell surface palmitoyl acyl transferase DHHC5 leads to pump inhibition, possibly by altering the relationship between the pump catalytic α subunit and specifically bound membrane lipids. In this review, we discuss the functional impact of PLM palmitoylation on the cardiac Na pump and the molecular basis of recognition of PLM by its palmitoylating enzyme DHHC5, as well as effects of palmitoylation on Na pump cell surface abundance in the cardiac muscle. We also highlight the numerous unanswered questions regarding the cellular control of this fundamentally important regulatory process.     

Factors Affecting Formation of Large Calcite Crystals (≥1 mm) in Bacillus subtilis 168 Biofilm

B4 is the most common medium used in general organomineralization studies and has been used to assay or to characterize mineral precipitation potential. In an exercise for the optimization of the laboratory conditions of crystal precipitation in vitro, we used Bacillus subtilis 168 as a type strain and its isogenic mutants. While literature is mainly focused on observing generic precipitation, we investigated the requirement to obtain large crystals (≥1 mm), which could be advantageous in wide-ranging implications for bioconsolidation of soil, sand, stone, and cementitious materials. Calcite crystals are visible on B4 agar plates within 7 days at 37°C after inoculum of B. subtilis 168 strain. In this study, we show that to form large crystals with a diameter ≥1 mm several conditions must be met: i) Reduced amount of B4 medium into the Petri plate improve crystal formation. 55 mm Petri plates contained only 4 ml of B4 agar medium reached a plateau in 6 days at 37°C. High moisture and presence of water condense would decrease crystal formation. ii) Inoculation of cells using a rod instead of a circular shaped spot. When the same number of B. subtilis cells was streaked, rod-shape biofilm significantly fostered crystal precipitation, while spot-shape prevented precipitation. iii) When more than one biofilm is present within the same plate, mutual interactions can affect precipitation in each biofilm. iv) Spherical nucleation sites are identified as initial step during the formation of large calcite crystal.     

Factors Affecting the Duration of Nestling Period and Fledging Order in Tengmalm’s Owl (Aegolius funereus): Effect of Wing Length and Hatching Sequence

In altricial birds, the nestling period is an important part of the breeding phase because the juveniles may spend quite a long time in the nest, with associated high energy costs for the parents. The length of the nestling period can be variable and its duration may be influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors; however, studies of this have mostly been undertaken on passerine birds. We studied individual duration of nestling period of 98 Tengmalm’s owl chicks (Aegolius funereus) at 27 nests during five breeding seasons using a camera and chip system and radio-telemetry. We found the nestlings stayed in the nest box for 27 – 38 days from hatching (mean ± SD, 32.4 ± 2.2 days). The individual duration of nestling period was negatively related to wing length, but no formally significant effect was found for body weight, sex, prey availability and/or weather conditions. The fledging sequence of individual nestlings was primarily related to hatching order; no relationship with wing length and/or other factors was found in this case. We suggest the length of wing is the most important measure of body condition and individual quality in Tengmalm’s owl young determining the duration of the nestling period. Other differences from passerines (e.g., the lack of effect of weather or prey availability on nestling period) are considered likely to be due to different life-history traits, in particular different food habits and nesting sites and greater risk of nest predation among passerines.     

Endemic or introduced? Phylogeography of Asparagopsis (Florideophyceae) in Australia reveals multiple introductions and a new mitochondrial lineage

The red seaweed Asparagopsis taxiformis embodies five cryptic mitochondrial lineages (lineage 1–5) introduced worldwide as a consequence of human mediated transport and climate change. We compared globally collected mitochondrial cox2‐3 intergenic spacer sequences with sequences produced from multiple Australian locations and South Korea to identify Asparagopsis lineages and to reveal cryptic introductions. We report A. taxiformis lineage 4 from Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Australia, and the highly invasive Indo‐Pacific Mediterranean lineage 2 from South Korea and Lord Howe Island, Australia. Phylogeographic analysis showed a clear haplotype and geographic separation between western Australian and Great Barrier Reef (GBR) isolates belonging to the recently described lineage 5. The same lineage, however, was characterized by a substantial genetic and geographic break between the majority of Australian specimens and Asparagopsis collections from South Solitary Island, Southern GBR, Lord Howe Island, Kermadec Islands, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia and French Polynesia. The disjunct geographic distribution and sequence divergence between these two groups supports the recognition of a sixth cryptic A. taxiformis mitochondrial lineage. As climatic changes accelerate the relocation of biota and offer novel niches for colonization, periodic surveys for early detection of cryptic invasive seaweeds will be critical in determining whether eradication or effective containment of the aliens are feasible.     

Tumor versus Stromal Cells in Culture—Survival of the Fittest?

Two of the signature genetic events that occur in human gliomas, EGFR amplification and IDH mutation, are poorly represented in experimental models in vitro. EGFR amplification, for example, occurs in 40 to 50% of GBM, and yet, EGFR amplification is rarely preserved in cell cultures derived from human tumors. To analyze the fate of EGFR amplified and IDH mutated cells in culture, we followed the development over time of cultures derived from human xenografts in nude rats enriched for tumor cells with EGFR amplification and of cultures derived from patient samples with IDH mutations, in serum monolayer and spheroid suspension culture, under serum and serum free conditions. We observed under serum monolayer conditions, that nestin positive or nestin and SMA double positive rat stromal cells outgrew EGFR amplified tumor cells, while serum spheroid cultures preserved tumor cells with EGFR amplification. Serum free suspension culture exhibited a more variable cell composition in that the resultant cell populations were either predominantly nestin/SOX2 co-expressing rat stromal cells or human tumor cells, or a mixture of both. The selection for nestin/SMA positive stromal cells under serum monolayer conditions was also consistently observed in human oligodendrogliomas and oligoastrocytomas with IDH mutations. Our results highlight for the first time that serum monolayer conditions can select for stromal cells instead of tumor cells in certain brain tumor subtypes. This result has an important impact on the establishment of new tumor cell cultures from brain tumors and raises the question of the proper conditions for the growth of the tumor cell populations of interest.