The atmospheric deposition of phosphorus in Lake Victoria (East Africa)

Wet and dry atmospheric fluxes of total phosphorus (TP) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) measured at four sites over a 12-month period were used to estimate lake-wide atmospheric phosphorus (P) deposition to Lake Victoria, East Africa. Atmospheric samples were collected in plastic buckets with top diameter of 25.5 cm by 30 cm deep. The highest P loading rates of 2.7 (TP) and 0.8 (SRP) kg ha^–2 year^–1 were measured at Mwanza compared to less than 1.9 (TP) and 0.65 (SRP) kg ha^–2 year^–1 measured in other three sites. By applying these loading rates to the lake surface, it was estimated that 13.5 ktons (13.5 × 10³ kg) of TP were deposited annually into the lake from the atmosphere. Thirty-two percent of the total was found to be in the SRP form. Dryfall, a component ignored in previous studies exceeded wet deposition by contributing 75% of the total P input. However, materials deposited by dryfall made a lesser contribution to soluble form of phosphorus, as SRP concentrations in the wet samples were 2–3 times higher than SRP concentrations in dry samples. The annual fluxes of phosphorus measured on the south and western shores of Lake Victoria (1.8–2.7 kg ha^–2 year^–1) are near the upper range of similar fluxes measured in the tropics. In comparison with the existing estimates of municipal and runoff P inputs from other studies, it is estimated that atmospheric deposition represent 55% of the total phosphorus input to the Lake Victoria. The four sampling sites were fairly clustered and wet and dry P deposition data were collected from shore/land stations and applied to open lake areas to estimate lake-wide P deposition. In this regard, the estimates determined here should be viewed as a first order approximation of actual P load deposited into the lake.     

Changes in relative abundance of zooplankton in northern Lake Victoria,East Africa

The zooplankton community of Lake Victoria was studied between March 1990 and February 1991 with the aim of identifying its constituent groups/species, their distribution, abundance, and long term changes in community structure. Zooplankton samples were taken from four stations using plankton nets (75–300 m mesh size) hauled vertically through the water column. The plankton comprised mainly Crustacea and to a lesser extent early stages of aquatic insects. Cyclopoid copepods, their nauplii and copepodites constituted the most frequent group at all stations. Calanoid copepods, Cladocera and Caridina nilotica (Roux), though widely distributed, contributed a small proportion. Chaoborus larvae and pupae and mites were occasionally present. A comparison of the relative proportions of the main zooplanktonic groups from three sources revealed remarkable changes in community structure since 1931. These changes are discussed with respect to predation, eutrophication and other changes in the food web structure of the lake.     

The role of sediments for phosphorus retention in the Kirinya wetland (Uganda)

Phosphorus dynamics were examined and modelled in a Cyperus papyrus and Phragmites mauritanus wetland on the Ugandan coast of Lake Victoria receiving secondary treated wastewater. Using a series of transversal transects, concentrations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) were found to decrease gradually as water moved downstream, giving nutrient retention capacities which ranged between 40% and 60%. Near-zero oxygen and nitrate concentrations were observed as well. To investigate the phosphorus retention characteristics in more detail, laboratory experiments were carried out on sediment samples and sediment cores retrieved from points along the wetland. Following a P shock load to cores of the wetland sediment, it was possible to determine a sediment P uptake rate of 0.016 day⁻¹. Sediment P adsorption studies were also performed, showing significant Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm behaviour. With these data a maximum P adsorption capacity of 4 mg P/g for the wetland sediment could be estimated. A plug-flow model was used to evaluate the phosphorus retention dynamics of the Kirinya wetland. A good correspondence between the actual and simulated P retention was observed. Comparing the daily P uptake (g/m³day) in the Kirinya wetland with the maximum sediment P uptake capacity, it can be concluded that the total P retention capacity of the wetland will only be sufficient for 30 more years under the present P loading and wetland management.     

Variation and distribution of total mercury in water, sediment and soil from northern Lake Victoria, East Africa

Lake Victoria, the world's largest tropical freshwater lake, is an important resource, ecologically and economically. THg distribution in the northern parts of the lake are not well known, so to answer this gap, patterns in total mercury (THg) in water, soil and two dated sediment cores from northern Lake Victoria were determined. Water THg concentrations ranged from 0.7 to 5.8 ng/L, and there were no apparent differences observed between Napoleon and Winam Gulfs. Two precipitation samples had Hg concentrations of 7 and 31 ng/L. Surface soil samples collected from various agricultural sites around Jinja, Napoleon Gulf, have THg concentrations between 12.7 and 48.4 ng/g dry weight; they were correlated with organic carbon, total phosphorus and % clay. A near-shore core taken in Itome Bay in Napoleon Gulf, and an offshore core collected from the deepest part of the lake had similar THg concentrations and profiles (78 to 458 ng/g dry weight). The increase in THg concentration in the profiles of both cores began around 1960 and peaked around 1980. The similar sedimentary THg profiles and fluxes in the cores suggest that the THg sources to L. Victoria are primarily atmospheric, with some erosion inputs, and that equatorial African ecosystems are not exempt from the global increase in baseline THg concentrations.     

Increasing fish production from wetlands at Lake Victoria, Uganda using organically manured seasonal wetland fish ponds

The processes driving primary productivity and its impacts on fish production were investigated in field trials in eight seasonal earthen wetland ponds ‘Fingerponds’ (192 m²) in Uganda between 2003 and 2005. The ponds were stocked by the seasonal flood with predominantly Oreochromis spp. at densities ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 fish m⁻². Chicken manure (521, 833 or 1,563 kg ha⁻¹) was applied fortnightly. Results showed that primary productivity was enhanced with maximum average net primary productivity (±Standard Error) of 11.7 (±2.5) g O₂ m⁻² day⁻¹ at the Gaba site and 8.3 (±1.5) g O₂ m⁻² day⁻¹ at the Walukuba site. Net fish yields were higher in manured ponds with up to 2,670 kg ha⁻¹ yield for a 310 day growth period compared to less than 700 kg ha⁻¹ in unmanured ponds. Fish production was limited mainly by high recruitment, falling water levels, light limitation from high suspended solids and turbidity, and low zooplankton biomass. It was concluded that Fingerponds have a high potential for sustainable fish production and can contribute to the alleviation of protein shortages amongst the riparian communities around Lake Victoria. Production can be enhanced further with improved stock management.     

Primary production in papyrus (<Emphasis Type=Italic>Cyperus papyrus</Emphasis> L.) of Rubondo Island,Lake Victoria,Tanzania

Above- and below-ground production and morphological characteristics of papyrus wetlands were measured at monthly intervals from July 2005 to June 2006 at Rubondo Island, Lake Victoria, Tanzania. The average value of live culm biomass (5,789 ± 435 g DW m⁻²) was higher than that of umbel biomass (2,902 ± 327 g DW m⁻²) by 50%. Root to rhizome means biomass value ratio was 1:1.8, rhizome biomass (4,144 ± 452 g DW m⁻²) being higher than roots biomass (2,254 ± 314 g DW m⁻²) by 45%. Direct proportion was observed between shoot density and culm–unit (culms and umbels) biomass. The average value of detritus/litter biomass (1,306 ± 315 g DW m⁻²) was less than total aerial biomass by 86%. The values of biomass are average of 12 sampling months from July 2005 to June 2006.     

A contribution to the study of the food of six cyprinid fishes in three areas of the Lake Victoria basin,East Africa

An account of the food of six species of cyprinid fish from the Lake Victoria basin is given. All the species studied possess tubular stomachs and analysis was carried out on entire guts, the relative importance of the various dietary items being assessed by the frequency occurrence method. Results indicate that these species are omnivorous, and their food ranges from debris, diatoms through algae, insect larvae to molluscs. Comparison of the food of Barbus spp. from the lake and river shows that riverine fish ingest more plant material than lake fish.     

Low genetic differentiation among morphologically distinct Labeobarbus species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) in the Lake Victoria and Albertine basins,Uganda: insights from mitochondrial DNA

Labeobarbus altianalis and L. bynni bynni are hexaploid cyprinid fishes in the genus Labeobarbus. In the Great Lakes region of Africa, these two large-bodied barbs exhibit considerable morphological variations. Their intraspecific classification, currently based on geographical distribution and morphological variation, is of limited application due to the overlapping nature of the water systems. Patterns of genetic variation in the Albertine and Victoria drainage basins in Uganda were assessed using mitochondrial sequences of the control region (470 basepairs) and the cytochrome b gene (627 basepairs). At the control region 36 distinct haplotypes were observed in a total of 177 individuals. Relatively low overall nucleotide diversity (π = 0.010) was observed. Hierarchical analysis of the molecular variance revealed significant differentiation between populations in the total sample (F _ST = 0.172, p < 0.001), among populations within each basin (F _SC = 0.047, p < 0.001), but no significant subdivision among basins (F _CT = 0.131, p > 0.05). Phylogenetic analysis of the control region haplotypes resulted in a star-shaped phylogeny, with no clusters that reflect current taxonomic designation, morphotypes or basins. Phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome b gene sequences resulted in a tree topology similar to that observed for the control region. Thus the morphological characteristics separating the two species are intraspecific variation and the whole sample probably belongs to the same species.     

The bounty of minor lakes: the role of small satellite water bodies in evolution and conservation of fishes in the Lake Victoria Region,East Africa

The Lake Victoria Region (LVR) encompasses the large lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Edward, George and Kivu, as well as scores of small satellite lakes within the parent catchments. Taken as a whole, the LVR originally harbored a unique fish fauna that included in excess of 600 endemic species of cichlid fishes. As a result of human influence, including a commercial fishery and the introduction of several exotic species, nearly 200 cichlid species and several endemic genera have become extinct from lakes Victoria and Kyoga. Recently, we have discovered that some of the apparently extinct taxa survive as extant representatives in the satellite lakes. Here, we summarize the findings of our ecological survey of the fish species of the satellite lakes. We also discuss the results of some preliminary genetic analyses, and highlight major genetic and ecological changes in the fish fauna that have taken place in the regional fishery. Minor lakes now play a crucial role in conserving the endangered species of the entire region, and also as living museums of East African ecological history. Our findings allude to the historical importance of minor satellite lakes as natural refugia for the fishes of the Lake Victoria Region, a region characterized by a history of geological and climatic instability.     

The use of stable carbon isotopes as tracers of ecosystem functioning in contrasting wetland ecosystems of Lake Victoria,Kenya

Aquatic macrophytes and sediments from two contrasting wetland ecosystems of Lake Victoria, Kenya (Lower Sondu Miriu and Kibos systems) were analyzed for their stable carbon isotopic composition in order to observe patterns in system functioning in these two ecosystems. The aquatic macrophytes had carbon isotope ratios ranging from –8.92 to –29.18 per mil (parts per thousand difference from the reference). For the dominant macrophytes, we observed most ¹³C enriched values for Cyperus papyrus and most ¹³C depleted values for Eichhornia crassipes. On transects from the river to the lake, Kibos sediments maintained lower carbon isotope signatures compared to the Lower Sondu Miriu sediments. The possible causes of the observed variation in the ¹³C signatures from sediments and aquatic macrophytes in the two-wetland ecosystems are outlined.     

Changes in the prey ingested and the variations in the Nile perch and other fish stocks of Lake Kyoga and the northern waters of Lake Victoria (Uganda)

The fish stocks of Lakes Kyoga and Victoria have changed since Nile perch, Lates niloticus (L.), was introduced, and this is reflected in the prey ingested by the predator. Initially, haplochromine cichlids constituted the main prey of most sizes of Nile perch. As the stocks of these have declined, Caridina nilotica (Roux) and Anisopteran nymphs have become the dominant food of the juveniles, while Rastrineobola argentea (Pellegrin), juvenile Nile perch and Oreochromis niloticus (L.) have become the main food of larger Nile perch. Apart from R. argentea , most of the native fish species of these lakes have disappeared. The stocks of Nile perch in Lake Kyoga, to which it was introduced earlier than to Lake Victoria, have declined after dominating the fishery since 1965. and have been superseded by O. niloricus . an introduced herbivore. Similar changes are now occurring in Lake Victoria. The Nile perch might not maintain the high yield realized in the two lakes when haplochromines were abundant. It is therefore necessary to exercise caution with high and long-term investments aimed specifically at developing the Nile perch fishery.     

Genetic distinction of four haplochromine cichlid fish species in a satellite lake of Lake Victoria,East Africa

Lake Victoria is famous for its in evolutionary terms young but species‐rich assemblage of cichlid fishes. This ‘superflock’ also includes additional species from adjacent water systems. Lake Victoria is surrounded by several smaller lakes that are connected to the main water body of Lake Victoria only through swampy areas. Lake Kanyaboli is one such lake, harbouring a much poorer species diversity, mostly comprised of Lake Victoria endemics, some of which are now considered extirpated from the main lake. The focus of this study was on the modern haplochromine component of the cichlid fauna, represented by Lipochromis maxillaris, Astatotilapia nubila, Xystichromis phytophagus and Astatotilapia sp. ‘Bigeye’, as well as a number of morphologically distinct haplochromine specimens that could not be assigned to any of the recognized species. We used five microsatellite markers to distinguish these five taxa. Genetically, L. maxillaris was clearly differentiated from all other taxa, and A. sp. ‘Bigeye’ was moderately differentiated from the remaining three. Astatotilapia nubila, X. phytophagus and the unidentified specimens constituted a partially overlapping cluster. As each of the clusters had several (5–14) private alleles, extremely recent divergence is suggested. As all taxa except for A. sp. ‘Bigeye’ and the unidentified specimens also occur or at least occurred in Lake Victoria, it is likely that they evolved as part of the Lake Victoria superflock, while A. sp. ‘Bigeye’ and the unidentified specimens may have currently evolved in situ. The observation of slightly distinct albeit overlapping body shapes and the extremely close genetic relationship between three of the five taxa are fully compatible and in support of the hybrid swarm theory of adaptive radiation.     

Decline of the African lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) in Lake Victoria (East Africa)

Catch and effort data for the period 1973–1990 demonstrate a dramatic decline of lungfish in the Tanzanian waters of Lake Victoria. Bottom trawl catches in the Mwanza Gulf showed a decline in catch rates from 67.5 kg h⁻¹ in 1973 to 5.5 kg h⁻¹ in 1986. Trawling of commercial vessels in the Speke Gulf revealed a decline in lungfish catches from 1.3 kg h⁻¹ in 1986 to 0.07 kg h⁻¹ in 1990. The development of anoxia in the deeper waters of Lake Victoria, the algal blooms, and the decline of water transparency, all associated with eutrophication, are not likely to have contributed to the decreased catch rate. However, the lungfish decline may reflect the interaction of overexploitation by the fishery and a low level of Nile perch predation that restricts lungfish to wetland refugia. We suggest that this may have been reinforced over the past few decades by large-scale conversion of wetlands to agricultural land and harvesting of nest-guarding male lungfish leading to decreased recruitment of young.     

Oxygen concentration profiles in sediments of two ancient lakes: Lake Baikal (Siberia,Russia) and Lake Malawi (East Africa)

Oxygen concentration profiles have been measured, by means of with microelectrodes in sediments of Lake Baikal and Lake Malawi, along transects allowing to give a survey of two major ancient Rift lakes: Lake Baikal (Eastern Siberia) and Lake Malawi (East Africa), along depth transects in the constitutive basins of the lakes and/or of relevant depths with regard to oxygen (including including the deepest point, 1680 m, in Lake Baikal). Sediment oxygen penetration depths (SOPs) display very different patterns, depending on the lake in the two lakes. In Lake Baikal, SOPs are variable, show no significant relationship with bathymetric depth and are surprisingly deep on Akademichesky ridge (> 50.0 mm), emphasizing the distinctive feature of this region in the lake. While the Selenga river is an important source of eutrophication, the similarity of SOP-values in the Selenga shallow with those of most other sites suggests either a dilution of organic material by allochthonous matter, or a strong south-to-north transport of particles. In Lake Malawi, available oxygen is restricted to a maximum of three millimetres of the sediment, and there is a negative relationship with bathymetric depth, as a result of a steady decline of oxygen concentration with depth through the water column. Amongst the few parameters known to affect SOPs, the oxygen consumption by the sediment seems the most significant in both lakes. SOP-values furthermore confirm differences in the trophic status of Baikal and Malawi, respectively. The importance of oxygen as a factor likely to create ecological segregation for benthic organisms is discussed. Lake Malawi offers possibilities of bathymetric segregation but no vertical segregation in the sediment. In contrast, no bathymetric segregation related to oxygen is possible in Lake Baikal, but vertical segregation in the sediment is very likely. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A Synoptic Ecopath model of biomass flows during two different static ecological situations in Lake Nakuru (Kenya)

Trophic relationships inside the Lake Nakuru ecosystem during two different phases are described by using the ECOPATH model. This allows a partial explanation of the ecological changes observed in the lake and to show that this apparently unstable ecosystem is characterized by constant transfer efficiencies within the existing trophic levels.     

Biological diversity of the Yala Swamp lakes, with special emphasis on fish species composition, in relation to changes in the Lake Victoria Basin (Kenya): threats and conservation measures

During the second half of the last century, the Lake Victoria ecosystem has undergone drastic ecological changes. Most notable has been the decline in the populations of many endemic cichlid fishes. The lake has lost nearly 200 haplochromines and one tilapiine, Oreochromis esculentus. The above changes have been attributed to effects of species stocking and, in particular, from predation pressure by the introduced Nile perch, Lates niloticus. Other factors that have led to the decline of the endemic species include intensive non-selective fishing, extreme changes in the drainage basin, increased eutrophication, and the invasion of the lake by the water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes. However, the remnants of some species that had disappeared from Lake Victoria occur abundantly in the Yala Swamp lakes (Kanyaboli, Sare and Namboyo). This paper discusses the biodiversity of the swamp and the three lakes and gives suggestions for their conservation.