Archaeobotanical evidence for early agriculture at Ljubjansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), central Slovenia

Archaeobotanical evidence is presented for early agriculture at southwestern Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), Slovenia. Archaeobotanical finds from the Eneolithic site at Hočevarica, and pollen records from an archaeological profile and from a nearby core were analysed. Numerous charred grains of cultivated cereals together with fossil seeds of Chenopodium sp. demonstrate that during the occupation of the settlement at Hočevarica, agriculture was well established. The majority of identified grains were of Hordeum vulgare (cultivated barley) and the rest were Triticum monococcum and T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum (cultivated wheats). Large amounts of cereal pollen and pollen of Chenopodiaceae also suggest strong human impact on the surrounding vegetation and landscape. Pollen and archaeobotanical data from Hočevarica show a large consistency in timing of the appearance of agriculture. In the pollen record from the core at Hočevarica a significant increase (up to 40%) in cereal pollen was detected at 4881 ± 50 B.P. (3770-3630 cal B.C.). Charred cereal grains were dated to 4800 ± 40 B.P. (3650-3520 cal B.C.). The grains of cultivated cereals from Hočevarica represent the oldest archaeobotanical evidence for agriculture in central Slovenia. Received February 18, 2002 / Accepted October 21, 2002     

Plant economy at a late Neolithic lake dwelling site in Slovenia at the time of the Alpine Iceman

We present the results of a plant macroremain study of the late Neolithic lakeshore settlement Stare gmajne (SG) at Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia, with cultural horizons that ended around 3330 and 3110 cal. b.c., as obtained by dendrochronological and radiocarbon dating of the most frequent construction timbers of Quercus sp. (oak) and Fraxinus sp. (ash). Fourteen systematically taken samples were investigated, using standard methods for studying waterlogged plant remains, which had been developed during lake dwelling research north of the Alps. Most of the remains were preserved in a waterlogged state, and we identified a total of 93 taxa. The most important cultivated plants were Triticum dicoccum (emmer), Hordeum vulgare (six-rowed naked barley), T. monococcum (einkorn), Linum usitatissimum (flax) and Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). The numerous possibly gathered plants also included Trapa natans (water chestnut) and Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris (wild grapevine). Chenopodium album (goosefoot) and Brassica rapa (turnip) with seeds/fruits rich in oil and starch were probably gathered as well. Comparisons of the Stare gmajne results with contemporary north Alpine sites (NA) showed, among other things, that Triticum durum/turgidum (tetraploid naked wheat), frequent at NA, was not found at SG. Trapa natans (water chestnut) was rare and Vitis (grapevine) was not found at NA. The observed differences in the wild plant spectra may have ecological causes, for example a warmer climate south of the Alps, but differences in cultivar spectra are more likely for cultural-historical reasons.     

New archaeobotanical finds of Isatis tinctoria L. (woad) from Iron Age Gaul and a discussion of the importance of woad in ancient time

Although chemical analyses of textile remains have traced the use of Isatis tinctoria L. (woad) back to the Neolithic period, archaeobotanical remains of the plant are scarce in north-western Europe, especially in France. A new discovery in the rural settlement of Roissy, north of Paris, raises the question of local cultivation of woad from at least the fifth–fourth century b.c. (La Tène A/B1) in northern Gaul. The plant assemblage comes from the filling of a storage pit, which also included a wide variety of cultivated plants. These data represent a valuable contribution to the study of the circumstances of the adoption of woad as a new crop.     

A new find of macrofossils of feather grass (Stipa) in an Early Bronze Age storage pit at Vliněves, Czech Republic: local implications and possible interpretation in a Central European context

The abundance of Stipa remains in material dated to the Middle Neolithic (ca. 4400–4000 b.c.) from Kujawy (central Poland) and their presence in a storage pit at Vliněves (Czech Republic) dated to the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2300–1600 b.c.) are most probably connected with gathering of the plant. Stipa grains are edible and the whole plant could have been used as insulation, for making mattresses and for a range of similar purposes. Nowadays spikelets of Stipa are used for decoration. They are dangerous to herbivores because of the sharpness of the basal part of the spikelet and the tendency of the awns to unroll in wet conditions. Already in the first half of the 20th century the plant was regarded as a weed of meadows. The gathering and use of Stipa, as suggested by the abundance of its archaeological macro-remains, was most probably prompted by changes in the local environment. These latter arose from intensive human activity, mostly deforestation and grazing by domestic animals, leading to the formation of steppe-like vegetation. This process is documented by a pollen diagram from a peat section located near the Vliněves site.     

Prehistory of plant growing and collecting in northern Italy, based on seed remains from the early Neolithic to the Chalcolithic (c. 5600–2100 cal b.c.)

The stages of the early Neolithic and the spread of agriculture in northern Italy are difficult to determine and basically still unclear, since this region was influenced by deeply different cultures coming from both the Mediterranean coasts and the Balkans. The complex interrelations due to the contributions from both cultures are reinterpreted here thanks to recent data, modifying a picture which 15 years ago was believed to be definite. According to radiocarbon chronology, the appearance of the earliest farming communities in northern Italy should be dated around 5600–5500 cal b.c. Early farmers cultivated several cereal and pulse taxa, of which the more important were Hordeum vulgare/distichum, Triticum dicoccum, T. monococcum, T. aestivum/durum/turgidum, Lens culinaris and Pisum sp. In addition they gathered many wild plants. The spread of agriculture was a rapid phenomenon and within a few centuries agriculture was established into the Alps. Little is known about the middle and late Neolithic, with the Square-mouthed pottery culture “Bocca Quadrata”, from c. 5100 cal b.c. onwards, since most of the archaeological features discovered up to the present have produced only a few plant remains. We demonstrate the introduction of poppy and a few other innovations like a slightly increased cultivation of free-threshing cereals and flax. Archaeobotanical analyses from Chalcolithic or Copper Age settlements, from c. 3500 cal b.c. onwards, are even scarcer and a comparison with the earlier Neolithic settlements does not yet seem possible.     

Mid- and late-Holocene vegetation and fire history at Biviere di Gela, a coastal lake in southern Sicily, Italy

The vegetation and fire history of few coastal sites has been investigated in the Mediterranean region so far. We present the first paleoecological reconstruction from coastal Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. We analysed pollen and charcoal in the sediments of Biviere di Gela, a lake (lagoon) on the south coast of Sicily. Our data suggest that the area became afforested after a marine transgression at ca. 7200 cal b.p. (5250 b.c.). Build-up of forest and shrublands took ca. 200–300 years, mainly with the deciduous trees Quercus, Ostrya and Fraxinus. Juniperus expanded ca. 6900 cal b.p. (4950 b.c.), but declined again 6600 cal b.p. (4650 b.c.). Afterwards, evergreen trees (Q. ilex-type and Olea) became dominant in the forest and Pistacia shrublands were established. Forest and shrubland reached a maximum ca. 7000–5000 cal b.p. (5050–3050 b.c.); subsequently forest declined in response to human impact, which was probably exacerbated by a general trend towards a more arid climate. During the Neolithic, fire was used to open the landscape, significantly reducing several arboreal taxa (Q. ilex, Fraxinus, Juniperus) and promoting herbs and shrubs (Achillea, Cichorioideae, Brassicaceae, Ephedra). Final forest disruption occurred around 2600 cal b.p. (650 b.c.) with the onset of the historically documented Greek colonization. We conclude that the open maquis and garrigue vegetation of today is primarily the consequence of intensive land-use over millennia. Under natural or near-natural conditions arboreal taxa such as Q. ilex, Olea and Pistacia would be far more important than they are today, even under the hot and rather dry coastal conditions of southern Sicily.     

What’s in a hearth? Seeds and fruits from the Neolithic fishing and fowling camp at Bergschenhoek,The Netherlands,in a wider context

This paper presents new results from the Early Neolithic Dutch wetland site of Bergschenhoek (ca. 4200 cal b.c., Swifterbant Culture), which are compared with finds from similar features and sites. The data indicate the presence of predominantly eutrophic, nutrient-rich reed and forb vegetation and suggest the preparation of meals consisting of fish and fruits. The finds from the hearth, dominated by uncarbonised remains of wetland taxa, form a remarkable part of the find assemblage. Therefore, the discussion concerns assemblages, deposition processes and interpretations of uncarbonised and carbonised finds from hearths at comparable, contemporary sites. The wide variation of macroremains assemblages of hearths indicates that plant deposition in hearths is understood only partly and remains a topic for further research.     

The spread of agriculture in northern Iberia: new archaeobotanical data from El Mirón cave (Cantabria) and the open-air site of Los Cascajos (Navarra)

This paper presents archaeobotanical results from the Neolithic levels (5,300–4,000 b.c.) of two recently excavated sites in northern Iberia: El Mirón cave (Cantabria) and the open-air site of Los Cascajos (Navarra). A cereal grain from El Mirón is currently the earliest domesticated plant remain from this region. Despite the large number of samples examined, plant remains are few. They include basically cereals (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. aestivum/durum/turgidum and Hordeum vulgare) and some nuts and fruits (Corylus avellana, Quercus sp., Vitis sp., etc.). The presence of free-threshing wheats at El Mirón opens up an interesting subject for debate, as until now naked wheats have been absent from the early Neolithic archaeobotanical record of the coastal Cantabrian region. Hulled wheat chaff is the main plant component from Los Cascajos, south of the Cantabrian Cordillera in Navarra, indicating waste from processing activities. The association of barley almost exclusively with both a burial and a ritual vase in Los Cascajos could be related specific rituals or ceremonies.     

Flax for oil or fibre? Morphometric analysis of flax seeds and new aspects of flax cultivation in Late Neolithic wetland settlements in southwest Germany

The transition from the early to the middle phase of the Late Neolithic (fourth–third millennium b.c.) is closely connected with the term “secondary products revolution”, which involves the adoption of animal traction and an increased production of rendered animal commodities such as wool and dairy products. Based on measurements of Linum usitatissimum L. (flax) seeds and their abundance in 32 wetland settlements in southwest Germany, we presume that the introduction of a new flax variety, maybe a better flax for fibre, and the intensification of flax cultivation were also a part of this process. The morphometric analysis shows that flax seed sizes in the early phase of the Late Neolithic (4000–3400 cal. b.c.) differ significantly from those of the middle and latest phase (3400–2400 cal. b.c.).     

ArchaeobotanyofmoundstructuresinCampodelPucará,Catamarca, Argentina (1750–1450 b.p.): ceremonial use or rubbish dumps?

The archaeobotanical macroremains discussed in this study were recovered from six mound structures at Campo del Pucará (Andalgalá, Catamarca, northwest Argentina), a site inhabited between ca. 1750 and 1450 b.p. (a.d. 200–500). The most important identified taxon was Zea mays var. minima (maize), Acacia sp., Prosopis sp., P. nigra or P. alba, P. torquata (Leguminosae of the Mimosoideae subfamily), Phaseolus sp., P. vulgaris var. vulgaris, P. v. var. aborigineus, undetermined P. vulgaris (beans) and Cucurbita maxima (winter squash). The plant remains represent the leftovers of food, fuel and building materials. Plants were grown and gathered in the near surroundings. The material identified most probably represents waste, however it could not be unambiguously attributed either to household or ceremonial activities.     

The occurrence and identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Setaria italica</Emphasis> (L.) P. Beauv. (foxtail millet) grains from the Chengtoushan site (ca. 5800 cal B.P.) in central China,with reference to the domestication centre in Asia

Archaeobotanical remains of Setaria grains and chaff were found at the Chengtoushan site in south-central China (ca. 5800 cal b.p.). Grain shape was determined, using length to breadth ratios, and morphological variation in the upper lemma of modern domesticated and wild Setaria species were examined using scanning electron microscopy as a basis for identifying archaeobotanical remains. Grains of S. viridis, S. yunnanensis, and S.×pycnocoma are slender, whereas S. italica, S. italica var. germinica, S. lutescenes, S. faberi, S. glauca, S. pallidefusca and S. intermedia are round in shape. The papillae distributed on the upper lemma of S. italica are small (8–15 μm) with a non-ridged base, while other Setaria species have large papillae (15–20 μm) with a widely ridged base. The remains of the Setaria from the Neolithic layers at Chengtoushan included S. italica, based on these identification characters. These new finds of foxtail millet are the earliest discoveries from the Yangtze River basin of southern China and are also the earliest evidence for co-cultivation of foxtail millet with rice. The implications of these findings for understanding foxtail millet domestication centres are discussed.     

Recovery techniques for waterlogged archaeological sediments: a comparison of different treatment methods for samples from Neolithic lake shore settlements

This paper presents the first comparable overview of different recovery techniques used for waterlogged Neolithic sediments in the surroundings of the Alps in the last decades. Such an investigation became necessary because it was not known which parts of plants and types of remains were absent or completely underrepresented due to inappropriate recovery techniques in Slovenian archaeobotany up to 2006. During the 2007 excavation of the approximately 5,200 years old Neolithic pile dwelling site of Stare gmajne, Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia, we compared three methods for the investigation of botanical macroremains: method 1 (M1) included rough wet-sieving and subsequent drying of the fractions; method 2 (M2) rough wet sieving and keeping the fractions wet; and method 3 (M3) washing over and keeping the fractions wet. M3 with gentle washing, systematic subsampling, examination, and sorting of macroremains while wet, as well as using 0.355 mm as the smallest sieve mesh size gave the best results. When using the cruder M2 or M1 methods, waterlogged uncarbonized seeds of taxa such as Linum usitatissimum, Papaver somniferum and Brassica rapa, waterlogged chaff of Cerealia and pericarps of Maloideae and Quercus sp., which are all fragile, were underrepresented or even completely absent and therefore the plant spectra were strongly biased. On the contrary, taxa with lignified seed/fruit walls like Cornus mas, Corylus avellana or Rubus sp. were overrepresented when using the M2 and particularly the M1 method. The application of the M3, instead of the M1 method which has been traditionally used in Slovenian archaeobotany, helped us to identify uncarbonized remains of Linum usitatissimum and various species of Triticum for the first time in a waterlogged Neolithic site in Slovenia. Our study should contribute to a standardization of methods, which is desperately needed in archaeobotany. The study clearly shows that the plant spectra can be strongly biased if inappropriate handling techniques are used. The conclusions hold for all kinds of waterlogged sediments of different periods.     

New evidence of possible crop introduction to north-eastern Europe during the Stone Age

Long term (from the Mesolithic to the Bronze Age) habitation of the Akali settlement on a clearly defined bog-island in East Estonia is used as an example of transitional development from a prosperous foragers’ habitation centre to a hinterland of established farming cultures, taking place through availability, substitution and consolidation phases of crop farming in the boreal forest zone. The pre-Neolithic finds of Triticum and Cannabis t. pollen at c. 5600 b.c. are interpreted as possible indications of the acquaintance of foragers with farming products, through contacts with central European agrarian tribes during the availability phase. The substitution phase is marked by more or less scattered pollen finds of various cereals and hemp and, at Akali, is connected with Neolithic period 4900–1800 b.c. An increasing importance of crop farming in the economy is characteristic of the consolidation phase, but because natural conditions are unfavourable for arable land-use, a regression of human presence is recorded during the second part of the Neolithic. The settlement was abandoned during the Bronze Age at the time when crop farming become the basis of the economy in Estonia. The re-colonisation of the area, traced to ca. a.d. 1200, took place for political reasons rather than through increasing suitability of the landscape.Editorial responsibility: Felix Bittmann     

Vegetation history,climate and human impact over the last 15,000 years at Lago dell’Accesa (Tuscany,Central Italy)

Interdisciplinary studies of the sediments of Lago dell’Accesa started in 2001. We present here results from the palynological study. The pollen diagram provides a record of vegetation and climatic change spanning over 15,000 years. The oldest pollen spectra show a late-glacial steppe vegetation typical of central and southern Italy during this period. The Late-glacial Interstadial, interrupted by two cooling events, is dominated by open deciduous oak forests. The Younger Dryas is represented by 150 cm of sediment and shows the presence of steppic vegetation. The Holocene vegetation is characterised by alternating dominance of deciduous oaks and Quercus ilex. The three zones characterised by Q. ilex are accompanied by peat layers marking lake-level lowering at ca. 8600–7900, 4600–4300 and 3700–2800 cal b.p. Between approximately 9000 and 6000 cal b.p. extensive Abies-forests existed on the Colline Metallifere located 15–20 km to the north and northeast of the lake. Local fir populations may also have existed by the lake. Human impact starts at approximately 8000 cal b.p. during the Neolithic period, and increases at ca. 4300 cal b.p. Castanea and Juglans pollen is recorded from ca. 2800 cal b.p. The impact of the Etruscan settlement near the lakeshore is shown in the increasing values of arable crops, species of secondary forest canopy (Ericaceae, Pinus, Pistacia, Myrtus) and anthropogenic indicators (Chenopodiaceae, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex etc).     

Archaeobotanical research at the medieval fortified site of ?g?l?z (Anti-Atlas, Morocco) with particular reference to the exploitation of the argan tree

The analysis of botanical macro-remains (seeds, fruits and wood) from the fortress site of ?g?l?z, situated in the Anti-Atlas mountain range of southern Morocco, provides a first glimpse of the plant economy of a medieval rural community in this part of North Africa. Considered as the original stronghold of the religious community led by Ibn T?mart, the founder of the Almohad dynasty, the site was occupied from the 10th to the 13th century a.d. The crop assemblage identified from ashy contexts in a central grouping of buildings (the qasba) comprises barley (Hordeum vulgare), sorghum (Sorghum sp., earliest occurrence known so far from Morocco), wheat (Triticum sp.) and a pulse (Lathyrus sativus/cicera). Several arboreal fruit species are also identified: fig (Ficus carica), almond (Prunus dulcis), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), grapevine (Vitis vinifera) and argan (Argania spinosa). The latter, predominant in the archaeobotanical record in the form of both fruit and wood remains, is of particular interest as it is the first time that this species, endemic to south-western Morocco and of prime economic interest regionally, has been identified from an archaeological context. In the past, as today, the argan tree seems to have played a major role in village economies as a source of wood for fuel and construction, fodder for livestock and food in the form of an edible oil, extracted from the oleaginous seeds. This article focuses on present and past uses of Argania spinosa as well as on the ecology and morpho-anatomy of this emblematic species.     

Plant subsistence and environment at the Mesolithic site T?gerup, southern Sweden: new insights on the “Nut Age”

Pollen was analysed from a sediment sequence collected in the close vicinity of the Mesolithic settlement T?gerup, southern Sweden. Macroremains were also retrieved from numerous samples taken at the site of the archaeological excavations of Kongemose and Erteb?lle settlement phases, 6700–6000 b.c. and 5500–4900 b.c. respectively. Plants and other organic remains were well preserved in the refuse layers from the settlements embedded in the gyttja. The pollen record includes no clear indications of human impact on the vegetation during the Mesolithic. The occurrence of charcoal particles and pollen of grass and herbs associated with nutrient-rich soils are contemporaneous with the Kongemose settlement. The Erteb?lle settlement phase, although characterised by considerable dwelling activities less than a hundred metres from the pollen sampling site, is scarcely seen in the pollen data. Numerous finds of crushed dogwood stones from the Kongemose phase, often partly carbonised, suggest that these stones were used for the extraction of oil. Other plants found in the Kongemose refuse layers that may have been used are apples, cherries, raspberries, acorns and rowan-berries. Based on the abundance of hazelnut shells found at the studied site and in other studies of Mesolithic sites in southern Scandinavia it is proposed that these remains may testify to an important food supply rather than just use as a supplement to animal protein. It is also hypothesised that a regional decrease in hazel populations and thus hazelnut availability at the end of the Mesolithic may have motivated the adoption of Neolithic subsistence.     

From foraging to farming in the Great Mazurian Lake District: palynological studies on Lake Miłkowskie sediments, northeast Poland

Early and mid Holocene local vegetational history, with special reference to woodland communities, was revealed by pollen analysis of a radiocarbon dated lake sediment profile from Lake Miłkowskie (Jezioro Miłkowskie) in northeastern Poland. The main factor controlling the dynamics of woodland composition changes until ca. 1950 b.c. was climate. After that, the role of human activity became increasingly important. The results of high-resolution pollen analyses provide evidence for early woodland disturbances caused by Mesolithic people at ca. 6950 b.c. Several episodes of human impact, differing in scale, and separated by subsequent episodes of woodland regeneration/stabilization were noted. The first traces of local crop farming, shown by the presence of Cerealia pollen, were recorded at ca. 3800 b.c. in the Paraneolithic/Neolithic period. Animal husbandry as well as cereal cultivation played only a marginal role in the economy, which was traditionally based on hunting, fishing and gathering through the Neolithic and the early Bronze Age. The change in economic strategies from foraging towards farming, starting around 3750 b.c., was a long-lasting process. An increase of productive economy took place in the middle Bronze Age at ca. 1400 b.c.     

Continuity and changes in plant resources during the Neolithic period in western Switzerland

The Neolithic and Bronze Age (4400-1570 B.C.) pile dwellings of Concise-sous-Colachoz on the shore of Lake Neuchatel (Canton of Vaud, western Switzerland), known as an archaeological site for more than 140 years, were recently re-investigated due to rescue excavations. Plant macrofossil analyses were done for several Neolithic occupation phases (3868-2440 B.C. the Cortaillod classique, Cortaillod moyen, Cortaillod tardif and Auvernier periods) with a focus on cereal remains, and additionally, archaeological deposits dating to the Cortaillod moyen culture (3710-3677 B.C.) were studied in detail. The preliminary study of cereal macrofossil remains from all the mentioned Neolithic phases show that the most important cereals were Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum (naked wheat), T. monococcum (einkorn) and Hordeum vulgare (barley). The preferences for specific crops did obviously not alter significantly through time, but, extraordinarily, significant amounts of einkorn continued to be grown for at least 1400 years during the Neolithic period. Other cultivated plants were Pisum sativum (pea), Linum usitatissimum (flax), and Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). Additionally to the seeds, capsule fragments of opium poppy were found in the Cortaillod moyen deposits. These represent the first finds of uncharred capsule fragments in Europe. Compared with other central European sites, opium poppy was very common during the 38th and 37th cent. B.C. and obviously less appreciated towards the end of the Neolithic in the western part of Switzerland. In central Switzerland the trends seem different: there opium poppy was mainly used during the Late Neolithic period. This may be due to cultural differences within contemporaneous human societies. Wild fruits which were collected as plant resources during the Cortaillod moyen period included Prunus spinosa (sloe), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Malus sylvestris (apple), Rubus idaeus/caesius/fruticosus (raspberry/dewberry/blackberry), Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry), Rosa sp. (hip), Quercus sp. (acorn), Corylus avellana (hazelnut), and Fagus sylvatica (beechnut), among others. Compared with other Neolithic sites in westem and central Switzerland the local population of Concise-sous-Colachoz used few sloes, while dogwood fruits were in use throughout the Neolithic period at Lake Neuchatel. Received September 4, 2001 / Accepted May 13, 2002     

Temporal cultural landscape dynamics in a marginal upland area: agricultural expansions and contractions inferred from palynological evidence at Yttra Berg, southern Sweden

Agrarian history and local cultural landscape dynamics have been documented through pollen analysis of a peat core within the hamlet of Yttra Berg, which is situated in an upland area of southwest Sweden. The sequence covers the last 5,000 years, from Neolithic to modern time. Wood pasturing started at 2000 b.c., followed by grazing and small-scale cultivation with 500 year cycles from 650 b.c., and permanent fields of agriculture from a.d. 1150. The area was abandoned during the period a.d. 1350–1550. Three cycles of succession related to land-use have been identified for the period 650 b.c. to a.d. 1550. Correlation with frequent clearance cairns in the area is discussed. Recessions of agriculture/settlement during the late Middle Ages and late modern time are documented. Pollen data indicate increased landscape and plant diversity since the Neolithic, closely linked to openness of the agrarian landscape. These results are important for landscape restoration.     

Holocene environmental history of Lake Vuolep Njakajaure (Abisko National Park, northern Sweden) reconstructed using biological proxy indicators

Holocene environmental and climatic changes are reconstructed using analyses of biological proxies in lake sediments from Vuolep Njakajaure, a lake located near the altitudinal treeline in northern Sweden (68°20′ N, 18°47′ E). We analysed biological proxy indicators from both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, including diatoms, pollen and chironomid head capsules, in order to reconstruct regional Holocene climate and the development of the lake and its catchment. During the early Holocene and after 2500 cal b.p., Fragilaria taxa dominated the diatom assemblages, whereas planktonic Cyclotella taxa prevailed during the major part of the Holocene (7800–2300 cal b.p.), indicating the importance of the pelagic habitat for diatom assemblage composition. The planktonic diatoms appeared at the same time as Alnus became established in the catchment, probably altering nutrient availability and catchment stability. The pollen record is dominated by mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. tortuosa) pollen throughout the Holocene, but high percentage abundances of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) pollen suggest the presence of a mixed pine-birch forest during the mid-Holocene (6800–2300 cal b.p.). Head capsules of Tanytarsini and Psectrocladius dominated the chironomid assemblage composition throughout the Holocene, in combination with Corynocera ambigua after 2300 cal b.p. A quantitative, diatom-based reconstruction of mean July air temperature indicated a relatively cold temperature during the early Holocene (9000–8000 cal b.p.) and after ca. 2300 cal b.p., whereas the mid-Holocene period is characterised by stable and warm temperatures. The overall patterns of Holocene climate and environmental conditions are similarly described by all biological proxy-indicators, suggesting relatively warm conditions during the mid-Holocene (ca. 7800–2300 cal b.p.), with a subsequent colder climate after 2300 cal b.p. However, the onset and magnitude of the inferred changes differ slightly among the proxies, illustrating different responses to lake development phases, land-uplift, and climate forcing (e.g., insolation patterns) during the Holocene in northern Sweden.