The thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius contains an unusually short, highly reduced dolichyl phosphate

Polyprenoids, polymers containing varied numbers of isoprene subunits, serve numerous roles in biology. In Eukarya, dolichyl phosphate, a phosphorylated polyprenol bearing a saturated α-end isoprene subunit, serves as the glycan carrier during N-glycosylation, namely that post-translational modification whereby glycans are covalently linked to select asparagine residues of a target protein. As in Eukarya, N-glycosylation in Archaea also relies on phosphorylated dolichol. In this report, LC-ESI/MS/MS was employed to identify a novel dolichyl phosphate (DolP) in the thermoacidophilic archaeon, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. The unusually short S. acidocaldarius DolP presents a degree of saturation not previously reported. S. acidocaldarius DolP contains not only the saturated α- and ω-end isoprene subunits observed in other archaeal DolPs, but also up to five saturated intra-chain isoprene subunits. The corresponding dolichol and hexose-charged DolP species were also detected. The results of the present study offer valuable information on the biogenesis and potential properties of this unique DolP. Furthermore, elucidation of the mechanism of α-isoprene unit reduction in S. acidocaldarius dolichol may facilitate the identification of the alternative, as yet unknown polyprenol reductase in Eukarya.     

N-Linked Glycans Are Assembled on Highly Reduced Dolichol Phosphate Carriers in the Hyperthermophilic Archaea Pyrococcus furiosus

In all three domains of life, N-glycosylation begins with the assembly of glycans on phosphorylated polyisoprenoid carriers. Like eukaryotes, archaea also utilize phosphorylated dolichol for this role, yet whereas the assembled oligosaccharide is transferred to target proteins from dolichol pyrophosphate in eukaryotes, archaeal N-linked glycans characterized to date are derived from a dolichol monophosphate carrier, apart from a single example. In this study, glycan-charged dolichol phosphate from the hyperthermophile Pyrococcus furiosus was identified and structurally characterized. Normal and reverse phase liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry revealed the existence of dolichol phosphate charged with the heptasaccharide recently described in in vitro studies of N-glycosylation on this species. As with other described archaeal dolichol phosphates, the α- and ω-terminal isoprene subunits of the P. furiosus lipid are saturated, in contrast to eukaryal phosphodolichols that present only a saturated α-position isoprene subunit. Interestingly, an additional 1-4 of the 12-14 isoprene subunits comprising P. furiosus dolichol phosphate are saturated, making this lipid not only the longest archaeal dolichol phosphate described to date but also the most highly saturated.     

N-glycosylation in Archaea—New roles for an ancient posttranslational modification

Genome analysis points to N-glycosylation as being an almost universal posttranslational modification in Archaea. Although such predictions have been confirmed in only a limited number of species, such studies are making it increasingly clear that the N-linked glycans which decorate archaeal glycoproteins present diversity in terms of both glycan composition and architecture far beyond what is seen in the other two domains of life. In addition to continuing to decipher pathways of N-glycosylation, recent efforts have revealed how Archaea exploit this variability in novel roles. As well as encouraging glycoprotein synthesis, folding and assembly into properly functioning higher ordered complexes, N-glycosylation also provides Archaea with a strategy to cope with changing environments. Archaea can, moreover, exploit the apparent species-specific nature of N-glycosylation for selectivity in mating, and hence, to maintain species boundaries, and in other events where cell-selective interactions are required. At the same time, addressing components of N-glycosylation pathways across archaeal phylogeny offers support for the concept of an archaeal origin for eukaryotes. In this MicroReview, these and other recent discoveries related to N-glycosylation in Archaea are considered.     

A predicted geranylgeranyl reductase reduces the ω-position isoprene of dolichol phosphate in the halophilic archaeon, Haloferax volcanii

In N-glycosylation in both Eukarya and Archaea, N-linked oligosaccharides are assembled on dolichol phosphate prior to transfer of the glycan to the protein target. However, whereas only the α-position isoprene subunit is saturated in eukaryal dolichol phosphate, both the α- and ω-position isoprene subunits are reduced in the archaeal lipid. The agents responsible for dolichol phosphate saturation remain largely unknown. The present study sought to identify dolichol phosphate reductases in the halophilic archaeon, Haloferax volcanii. Homology-based searches recognize HVO_1799 as a geranylgeranyl reductase. Mass spectrometry revealed that cells deleted of HVO_1799 fail to fully reduce the isoprene chains of H. volcanii membrane phospholipids and glycolipids. Likewise, the absence of HVO_1799 led to a loss of saturation of the ω-position isoprene subunit of C₅₅ and C₆₀ dolichol phosphate, with the effect of HVO_1799 deletion being more pronounced with C₆₀ dolichol phosphate than with C₅₅ dolichol phosphate. Glycosylation of dolichol phosphate in the deletion strain occurred preferentially on that version of the lipid saturated at both the α- and ω-position isoprene subunits.     

Distinct glycan-charged phosphodolichol carriers are required for the assembly of the pentasaccharide N-linked to the Haloferax volcanii S-layer glycoprotein

In Archaea, dolichol phosphates have been implicated as glycan carriers in the N-glycosylation pathway, much like their eukaryal counterparts. To clarify this relation, highly sensitive liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry was employed to detect and characterize glycan-charged phosphodolichols in the haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii. It is reported that Hfx. volcanii contains a series of C(55) and C(60) dolichol phosphates presenting saturated isoprene subunits at the α and ω positions and sequentially modified with the first, second, third and methylated fourth sugar subunits comprising the first four subunits of the pentasaccharide N-linked to the S-layer glycoprotein, a reporter of N-glycosylation. Moreover, when this glycan-charged phosphodolichol pool was examined in cells deleted of agl genes encoding glycosyltransferases participating in N-glycosylation and previously assigned roles in adding pentasaccharide residues one to four, the composition of the lipid-linked glycans was perturbed in the identical manner as was S-layer glycoprotein N-glycosylation in these mutants. In contrast, the fifth sugar of the pentasaccharide, identified as mannose in this study, is added to a distinct dolichol phosphate carrier. This represents the first evidence that in Archaea, as in Eukarya, the oligosaccharides N-linked to glycoproteins are sequentially assembled from glycans originating from distinct phosphodolichol carriers.     

A predicted geranylgeranyl reductase reduces the ω-position isoprene of dolichol phosphate in the halophilic archaeon, Haloferax volcanii

In N-glycosylation in both Eukarya and Archaea, N-linked oligosaccharides are assembled on dolichol phosphate prior to transfer of the glycan to the protein target. However, whereas only the α-position isoprene subunit is saturated in eukaryal dolichol phosphate, both the α- and ω-position isoprene subunits are reduced in the archaeal lipid. The agents responsible for dolichol phosphate saturation remain largely unknown. The present study sought to identify dolichol phosphate reductases in the halophilic archaeon, Haloferax volcanii. Homology-based searches recognize HVO_1799 as a geranylgeranyl reductase. Mass spectrometry revealed that cells deleted of HVO_1799 fail to fully reduce the isoprene chains of H. volcanii membrane phospholipids and glycolipids. Likewise, the absence of HVO_1799 led to a loss of saturation of the ω-position isoprene subunit of C(55) and C(60) dolichol phosphate, with the effect of HVO_1799 deletion being more pronounced with C(60) dolichol phosphate than with C(55) dolichol phosphate. Glycosylation of dolichol phosphate in the deletion strain occurred preferentially on that version of the lipid saturated at both the α- and ω-position isoprene subunits.     

Sweet to the extreme: protein glycosylation in Archaea

Post-translational modifications account for much of the biological diversity generated at the proteome level. Of these, glycosylation is the most prevalent. Long thought to be unique to Eukarya, it is now clear that both Bacteria and Archaea are also capable of N-glycosylation, namely the covalent linkage of oligosaccharides to select target asparagine residues. However, while the eukaryal and bacterial N-glycosylation pathways are relatively well defined, little is known of the parallel process in Archaea. Of late, however, major advances have been made in describing the process of archaeal N-glycosylation. Such efforts have shown, as is often the case in archaeal biology, that protein N-glycosylation in Archaea combines particular aspects of the eukaryal and bacterial pathways along with traits unique to this life form. For instance, while the oligosaccharides of archaeal glycoproteins include nucleotide-activated sugars formed by bacterial pathways, the lipid carrier on which such oligosaccharides are assembled is the same as used in eukaryal N-glycosylation. By contrast, transfer of assembled oligosaccharides to their protein targets shows Archaea-specific properties. Finally, addressing N-glycosylation from an archaeal perspective is providing new general insight into this event, as exemplified by the solution of the first crystal structure of an oligosaccharide transferase from an archaeal source.     

Discovering novel biology by in silico archaeology

Archaea are prokaryotes that evolved in parallel with bacteria. Since the discovery of the distinct status of the Archaea, extensive physiological and biochemical research has been conducted to elucidate the molecular basis of their remarkable lifestyle and their unique biology. Here, we discuss how in-depth comparative genomics has been used to improve the annotation of archaeal genomes. Combined with experimental verification, bioinformatic analysis contributes to the ongoing discovery of novel metabolic conversions and control mechanisms, and as such to a better understanding of the intriguing biology of the Archaea.     

Archaeal flagella, bacterial flagella and type IV pili: a comparison of genes and posttranslational modifications

The archaeal flagellum is a unique motility organelle. While superficially similar to the bacterial flagellum, several similarities have been reported between the archaeal flagellum and the bacterial type IV pilus system. These include the multiflagellin nature of the flagellar filament, N-terminal sequence similarities between archaeal flagellins and bacterial type IV pilins, as well as the presence of homologous proteins in the two systems. Recent advances in archaeal flagella research add to the growing list of similarities. First, the preflagellin peptidase that is responsible for processing the N-terminal signal peptide in preflagellins has been identified. The preflagellin peptidase is a membrane-bound enzyme topologically similar to its counterpart in the type IV pilus system (prepilin peptidase); the two enzymes are demonstrated to utilize the same catalytic mechanism. Second, it has been suggested that the archaeal flagellum and the bacterial type IV pilus share a similar mode of assembly. While bacterial flagellins and type IV pilins can be modified with O-linked glycans, N-linked glycans have recently been reported on archaeal flagellins. This mode of glycosylation, as well as the observation that the archaeal flagellum lacks a central channel, are both consistent with the proposed assembly model. On the other hand, the failure to identify other genes involved in archaeal flagellation by homology searches likely implies a novel aspect of the archaeal flagellar system. These interesting features remain to be deciphered through continued research. Such knowledge would be invaluable to motility and protein export studies in the Archaea.     

Haloferax volcanii N-Glycosylation: Delineating the Pathway of dTDP-rhamnose Biosynthesis

In the halophilic archaea Haloferax volcanii, the surface (S)-layer glycoprotein can be modified by two distinct N-linked glycans. The tetrasaccharide attached to S-layer glycoprotein Asn-498 comprises a sulfated hexose, two hexoses and a rhamnose. While Agl11-14 have been implicated in the appearance of the terminal rhamnose subunit, the precise roles of these proteins have yet to be defined. Accordingly, a series of in vitro assays conducted with purified Agl11-Agl14 showed these proteins to catalyze the stepwise conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to dTDP-rhamnose, the final sugar of the tetrasaccharide glycan. Specifically, Agl11 is a glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase, Agl12 is a dTDP-glucose-4,6-dehydratase and Agl13 is a dTDP-4-dehydro-6-deoxy-glucose-3,5-epimerase, while Agl14 is a dTDP-4-dehydrorhamnose reductase. Archaea thus synthesize nucleotide-activated rhamnose by a pathway similar to that employed by Bacteria and distinct from that used by Eukarya and viruses. Moreover, a bioinformatics screen identified homologues of agl11-14 clustered in other archaeal genomes, often as part of an extended gene cluster also containing aglB, encoding the archaeal oligosaccharyltransferase. This points to rhamnose as being a component of N-linked glycans in Archaea other than Hfx. volcanii.     

Protein-protein interactions in the archaeal core replisome

Most of the core components of the archaeal chromosomal DNA replication apparatus share significant protein sequence similarity with eukaryotic replication factors, making the Archaea an excellent model system for understanding the biology of chromosome replication in eukaryotes. The present review summarizes current knowledge of how the core components of the archaeal chromosome replication apparatus interact with one another to perform their essential functions.     

Reliability of CARD-FISH Procedure for Enumeration of Archaea in Deep-Sea Surficial Sediments

The enumeration of Archaea in deep-sea sediment samples is still limited, although different methodological procedures have been applied. Among these, catalysed reporter deposition-fluorescence in situ hybridisation (CARD-FISH) technique is a promising tool for estimation of archaeal abundance in deep-sea sediment samples. Comparing different permeabilisation treatments, the best results obtained both on archaeal pure cultures and on natural assemblages were with hydrochloric acid (0.1 M) and proteinase K (0.004 U/ml) treatments. The application of CARD-FISH on deep-sea sediments revealed that Archaea reach up to 41% of total prokaryotic cells. Specific probes for planktonic Archaea showed that marine Crenarchaea dominated archaeal seafloor communities. No clear bathymetric trends were observed for archaeal abundances and the morphology of continental margin (slope vs. canyon) seems not to have a direct influence on archaeal relative abundances. The site-specific sediment habitat—both abiotic environmental setting and sedimentary organic matter quality—explain up to 65% of variance of archaeal, crenarchaeal and euryarchaeal relative abundance, suggesting a wide ecophysiological adaptation to deep-sea benthic ecosystems. The findings demonstrate that Archaea are an important component of benthic microbial assemblages so far neglected, and hence they lay the groundwork for more focused research on their ecological importance in the functioning of deep-sea benthic ecosystems.     

Dense populations of Archaea associated with the demosponge Tentorium semisuberites Schmidt, 1870 from Arctic deep-waters

The associated microbial community in the mesohyl of the Arctic deep-water sponge Tentorium semisuberites Schmidt, 1870 (Hadromerida, Demospongiae) is dominated by Archaea. This is the result of an integral approach applying analyses of microbial lipid biomarkers as well as microscopic investigations using differential fluorescence in situ hybridisation with universal probes and counterstaining with 4′,6′-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) on sponge sections based on samples collected in the Greenland Sea in 2001, 2002 and 2005. The distribution of isoprenoidal C₄₀ hydrocarbons of the biphytane series suggests that affiliates of both major archaeal kingdoms, the Crenarchaeota and the Euryarchaeota, are present in the choanosome of T. semisuberites. Positive signals using the oligonucleotide probe ARCH915 indicate high numbers of Archaea in the mesohyl of this sponge. Based on optical estimations 70–90% of all microbial DAPI signals accounted for archaeal cells. Archaea in these high proportions have never been described in an Arctic deep-sea hadromerid sponge, nor in any other demosponge species. Similar observations in specimens collected over a time scale of 4 years suggest permanent sponge-Archaea associations.     

Different routes to the same ending: comparing the N-glycosylation processes of Haloferax volcanii and Haloarcula marismortui, two halophilic archaea from the Dead Sea

Recent insight into the N-glycosylation pathway of the haloarchaeon, Haloferax volcanii, is helping to bridge the gap between our limited understanding of the archaeal version of this universal post-translational modification and the better-described eukaryal and bacterial processes. To delineate as yet undefined steps of the Hfx. volcanii N-glycosylation pathway, a comparative approach was taken with the initial characterization of N-glycosylation in Haloarcula marismortui, a second haloarchaeon also originating from the Dead Sea. While both species decorate the reporter glycoprotein, the S-layer glycoprotein, with the same N-linked pentasaccharide and employ dolichol phosphate as lipid glycan carrier, species-specific differences in the two N-glycosylation pathways exist. Specifically, Har. marismortui first assembles the complete pentasaccharide on dolichol phosphate and only then transfers the glycan to the target protein, as in the bacterial N-glycosylation pathway. In contrast, Hfx. volcanii initially transfers the first four pentasaccharide subunits from a common dolichol phosphate carrier to the target protein and only then delivers the final pentasaccharide subunit from a distinct dolichol phosphate to the N-linked tetrasaccharide, reminiscent of what occurs in eukaryal N-glycosylation. This study further indicates the extraordinary diversity of N-glycosylation pathways in Archaea, as compared with the relatively conserved parallel processes in Eukarya and Bacteria.     

Model organisms for genetics in the domain Archaea: methanogens, halophiles, Thermococcales and Sulfolobales

The tree of life is split into three main branches: eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea. Our knowledge of eukaryotic and bacteria cell biology has been built on a foundation of studies in model organisms, using the complementary approaches of genetics and biochemistry. Archaea have led to some exciting discoveries in the field of biochemistry, but archaeal genetics has been slow to get off the ground, not least because these organisms inhabit some of the more inhospitable places on earth and are therefore believed to be difficult to culture. In fact, many species can be cultivated with relative ease and there has been tremendous progress in the development of genetic tools for both major archaeal phyla, the Euryarchaeota and the Crenarchaeota. There are several model organisms available for methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles; in the latter group, there are genetic systems for Sulfolobales and Thermococcales. In this review, we present the advantages and disadvantages of working with each archaeal group, give an overview of their different genetic systems, and direct the neophyte archaeologist to the most appropriate model organism.     

Extreme Secretion: Protein Translocation Across the Archaeal Plasma Membrane

In all three domains of life, extracytoplasmic proteins must overcome the hurdle presented by hydrophobic, lipid-based membranes. While numerous aspects of the protein translocation process have been well studied in bacteria and eukarya, little is known about how proteins cross the membranes of archaea. Analysis to date suggests that archael protein translocation is a mosaic of bacterial, eukaryal, and archaeal features, as indeed is much of archaeal biology. Archaea encode homologues of selected elements of the bacterial and eukaryal translocation machines, yet lack other important components of these two systems. Other aspects of the archaeal translocation process appear specific to this domain, possibly related to the extreme environmental conditions in which archsea thrive. In the following, current understanding of archaeal protein translocation is reviewed, as is recent progress in reconstitution of the archaeal translocation process in vitro.     

Acetamido sugar biosynthesis in the Euryarchaea

Archaea and eukaryotes share a dolichol phosphate-dependent system for protein N-glycosylation. In both domains, the acetamido sugar N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) forms part of the core oligosaccharide. However, the archaeal Methanococcales produce GlcNAc using the bacterial biosynthetic pathway. Key enzymes in this pathway belong to large families of proteins with diverse functions; therefore, the archaeal enzymes could not be identified solely using comparative sequence analysis. Genes encoding acetamido sugar-biosynthetic proteins were identified in Methanococcus maripaludis using phylogenetic and gene cluster analyses. Proteins expressed in Escherichia coli were purified and assayed for the predicted activities. The MMP1680 protein encodes a universally conserved glucosamine-6-phosphate synthase. The MMP1077 phosphomutase converted alpha-D-glucosamine-6-phosphate to alpha-D-glucosamine-1-phosphate, although this protein is more closely related to archaeal pentose and glucose phosphomutases than to bacterial glucosamine phosphomutases. The thermostable MJ1101 protein catalyzed both the acetylation of glucosamine-1-phosphate and the uridylyltransferase reaction with UTP to produce UDP-GlcNAc. The MMP0705 protein catalyzed the C-2 epimerization of UDP-GlcNAc, and the MMP0706 protein used NAD(+) to oxidize UDP-N-acetylmannosamine, forming UDP-N-acetylmannosaminuronate (ManNAcA). These two proteins are similar to enzymes used for proteobacterial lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and gram-positive bacterial capsule production, suggesting a common evolutionary origin and a widespread distribution of ManNAcA. UDP-GlcNAc and UDP-ManNAcA biosynthesis evolved early in the euryarchaeal lineage, because most of their genomes contain orthologs of the five genes characterized here. These UDP-acetamido sugars are predicted to be precursors for flagellin and S-layer protein modifications and for the biosynthesis of methanogenic coenzyme B.     

Hot crenarchaeal viruses reveal deep evolutionary connections

The discovery of archaeal viruses provides insights into the fundamental biochemistry and evolution of the Archaea. Recent studies have identified a wide diversity of archaeal viruses within the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park and other high-temperature environments worldwide. These viruses are often morphologically unique and code for genes with little similarity to other known genes in the biosphere, a characteristic that has complicated efforts to trace their evolutionary history. Comparative genomics combined with structural analysis indicate that spindle-shaped virus lineages might be unique to the Archaea, whereas other icosahedral viruses might share a common lineage with viruses of Bacteria and Eukarya. These studies provide insights into the evolutionary history of viruses in all three domains of life.     

The archaeal origins of the eukaryotic translational system

Among the 78 eukaryotic ribosomal proteins, eleven are specific to Eukarya, 33 are common only to Archaea and Eukarya and 34 are homologous (at least in part) to those of both Bacteria and Archaea. Several other translational proteins are common only to Eukarya and Archaea (e.g., IF2a, SRP19, etc.), whereas others are shared by the three phyla (e.g., EFTu/EF1A and SRP54). Although this and other analyses strongly support an archaeal origin for a substantial fraction of the eukaryotic translational machinery, especially the ribosomal proteins, there have been numerous unique and ubiquitous additions to the eukaryotic translational system besides the 11 unique eukaryotic ribosomal proteins. These include peptide additions to most of the 67 archaeal homolog proteins, rRNA insertions, the 5.8S RNA and the Alu extension to the SRP RNA. Our comparative analysis of these and other eukaryotic features among the three different cellular phylodomains supports the idea that an archaeal translational system was most likely incorporated by means of endosymbiosis into a host cell that was neither bacterial nor archaeal in any modern sense. Phylogenetic analyses provide support for the timing of this acquisition coinciding with an ancient bottleneck in prokaryotic diversity.