Specificity of the BvgAS and EvgAS phosphorelay is mediated by the C-terminal HPt domains of the sensor proteins

Despite the presence of highly conserved signalling modules, significant cross-communication between different two-component systems has only rarely been observed. Domain swapping and the characterization of liberated signalling modules enabled us to characterize in vitro the protein domains that mediate specificity and are responsible for the high fidelity in the phosphorelay of the unorthodox Bvg and Evg two-component systems. Under equimolar conditions, significant in vitro phosphorylation of purified BvgA and EvgA proteins was only obtained by their histidine kinases, BvgS and EvgS respectively. One hybrid histidine kinase consisting of the BvgS transmitter and HPt domains and of the EvgS receiver domain (BvgS-TO-EvgS-R) was able to phosphorylate BvgA but not EvgA. In contrast, the hybrid protein consisting of the BvgS transmitter and the EvgS receiver and HPt domains (BvgS-T-EvgS-RO) was unable to phosphorylate BvgA but efficiently phosphorylated EvgA. These results demonstrate that the C-terminal HPt domains of the sensor proteins endow the unorthodox two-component systems with a high specificity for the corresponding regulator protein. In the case of the response regulators, the receiver but not the output domains contribute to the specific interaction with the histidine kinases, because a hybrid protein consisting of the EvgA receiver and the BvgA output domain could only be phosphorylated by the EvgS protein.     

Dimerization of signalling modules of the EvgAS and BvgAS phosphorelay systems

Biophysical and biochemical properties of signalling proteins or domains derived from the unorthodox EvgAS and BvgAS two-component phosphorelay systems of Escherichia coli and Bordetella pertussis were investigated. Oligomerization of the effector proteins EvgA and BvgA and of truncated EvgS and BvgS derived signalling proteins containing the receiver and histidine containing phosphotransfer (HPt) domains or comprising only the HPt domains were characterized by native gel electrophoresis, gel permeation experiments and analytical ultracentrifugation. The results obtained by the different methods are consistent with non-phosphorylated EvgA and BvgA proteins being dimers in solution with a dissociation constant significantly below 1 microM. In contrast, all sensor derived domains of EvgS and BvgS were observed to be monomers in vitro. No indications for a phosphorylation induced stimulation of oligomerization of the C-terminal histidine kinase domains could be detected. In agreement with these data, surface plasmon resonance studies revealed a 2:1 stoichiometry in the interaction of EvgA with the immobilized EvgS HPt domain and an affinity constant of 1. 24x10(6) M(-1).     

Putative osmosensor – OsHK3b – a histidine kinase protein from rice shows high structural conservation with its ortholog AtHK1 from Arabidopsis

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes respond to various environmental stimuli using the two-component system (TCS). Essentially, it consists of membrane-bound histidine kinase (HK) which senses the stimuli and further transfers the signal to the response regulator, which in turn, regulates expression of various target genes. Recently, sequence-based genome wide analysis has been carried out in Arabidopsis and rice to identify all the putative members of TCS family. One of the members of this family i.e. AtHK1, (a putative osmosensor, hybrid-type sensory histidine kinase) is known to interact with AtHPt1 (phosphotransfer proteins) in Arabidopsis. Based on predicted rice interactome network (PRIN), the ortholog of AtHK1 in rice, OsHK3b, was found to be interacting with OsHPt2. The analysis of amino acid sequence of AtHK1 showed the presence of transmitter domain (TD) and receiver domain (RD), while OsHK3b showed presence of three conserved domains namely CHASE (signaling domain), TD, and RD. In order to elaborate on structural details of functional domains of hybrid-type HK and phosphotransfer proteins in both these genera, we have modeled them using homology modeling approach. The structural motifs present in various functional domains of the orthologous proteins were found to be highly conserved. Binding analysis of the RD domain of these sensory proteins in Arabidopsis and rice revealed the role of various residues such as histidine in HPt protein which are essential for their interaction.     

Use of a Probabilistic Motif Search to Identify Histidine Phosphotransfer Domain-Containing Proteins

The wealth of newly obtained proteomic information affords researchers the possibility of searching for proteins of a given structure or function. Here we describe a general method for the detection of a protein domain of interest in any species for which a complete proteome exists. In particular, we apply this approach to identify histidine phosphotransfer (HPt) domain-containing proteins across a range of eukaryotic species. From the sequences of known HPt domains, we created an amino acid occurrence matrix which we then used to define a conserved, probabilistic motif. Examination of various organisms either known to contain (plant and fungal species) or believed to lack (mammals) HPt domains established criteria by which new HPt candidates were identified and ranked. Search results using a probabilistic motif matrix compare favorably with data to be found in several commonly used protein structure/function databases: our method identified all known HPt proteins in the Arabidopsis thaliana proteome, confirmed the absence of such motifs in mice and humans, and suggests new candidate HPts in several organisms. Moreover, probabilistic motif searching can be applied more generally, in a manner both readily customized and computationally compact, to other protein domains; this utility is demonstrated by our identification of histones in a range of eukaryotic organisms.     

Solution structure of the Escherichia coli YojN histidine-phosphotransferase domain and its interaction with cognate phosphoryl receiver domains

The Rcs signaling system in Escherichia coli controls a variety of physiological functions, including capsule synthesis, cell division and motility. The activity of the central regulator RcsB is modulated by phosphorylation through the sensor kinases YojN and RcsC, with the YojN histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain representing the catalytic unit that coordinates the potentially reversible phosphotransfer reaction between the receiver domains of the RcsB and RcsC proteins. Heteronuclear high-resolution NMR spectroscopy was employed to determine the solution structure of the YojN-HPt domain and to map the interaction with its two cognate receiver domains. The solution structure of YojN-HPt exhibits a well-ordered and rigid protein core consisting of the five helices alphaI to alphaV. The helices alphaII to alphaV form a four-helix bundle signature motif common to proteins of similar function, and helix alphaI forms a cap on top of the bundle. The helix alphaII is separated by a proline induced kink into two parts with different orientations and dynamic behavior that is potentially important for complex formation with other proteins. The N-terminal part of YojN-HPt spanning the first 26 amino acid residues seems to contain neither a regular secondary structure nor a stable tertiary structure and is disordered in solution. The identified YojN-HPt recognition sites for the regulator RcsB and for the isolated receiver domain of the RcsC kinase largely overlap in defined regions of the helices alphaII and alphaIII, but show significant differences. Using the residues with the largest chemical shift changes obtained from titration experiments, we observed a dissociation constant of approximately 200microM for YojN-HPt/RcsC-PR and of 40microM for YojN-HPt/RcsB complexes. Our data indicate the presence of a recognition area in close vicinity to the active-site histidine residue of HPt domains as a determinant of specificity in signal-transduction pathways.     

Functional roles of conserved amino acid residues surrounding the phosphorylatable histidine of the yeast phosphorelay protein YPD1

The histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) protein YPD1 is an osmoregulatory protein in yeast that facilitates phosphoryl transfer between the two response regulator domains associated with SLN1 and SSK1. Based on the crystal structure of YPD1 and the sequence alignment of YPD1 with other HPt domains, we site-specifically engineered and purified several YPD1 mutants in order to examine the role of conserved residues surrounding the phosphorylatable histidine (H64). Substitution of the positively charged residues K67 and R90 destabilized the phospho-imidazole linkage, whereas substitution of G68 apparently reduces accessibility of H64. These findings, together with the effect of other mutations, provide biochemical support of the proposed functional roles of conserved amino acid residues of HPt domains.     

Solution structure of a complex of the histidine autokinase CheA with its substrate CheY

In the bacterial chemotaxis two-component signaling system, the histidine-containing phosphotransfer domain (the "P1" domain) of CheA receives a phosphoryl group from the catalytic domain (P4) of CheA and transfers it to the cognate response regulator (RR) CheY, which is docked by the P2 domain of CheA. Phosphorylated CheY then diffuses into the cytoplasm and interacts with the FliM moiety of the flagellar motors, thereby modulating the direction of flagellar rotation. Structures of various histidine phosphotransfer domains (HPt) complexed with their cognate RR domains have been reported. Unlike the Escherichia coli chemotaxis system, however, these systems lack the additional domains dedicated to binding to the response regulators, and the interaction of an HPt domain with an RR domain in the presence of such a domain has not been examined on a structural basis. In this study, we used modern nuclear magnetic resonance techniques to construct a model for the interaction of the E. coli CheA P1 domain (HPt) and CheY (RR) in the presence of the CheY-binding domain, P2. Our results indicate that the presence of P2 may lead to a slightly different relative orientation of the HPt and RR domains versus those seen in such complex structures previously reported.     

Conservation of structure and function among histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) domains as revealed by the crystal structure of YPD1.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the SLN1-YPD1-SSK1 phosphorelay system controls a downstream mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase in response to hyperosmotic stress. YPD1 functions as a phospho-histidine protein intermediate which is required for phosphoryl group transfer from the sensor kinase SLN1 to the response regulator SSK1. In addition, YPD1 mediates phosphoryl transfer from SLN1 to SKN7, the only other response regulator protein in yeast which plays a role in response to oxidative stress and cell wall biosynthesis.The X-ray structure of YPD1 was solved at a resolution of 2.7 A by conventional multiple isomorphous replacement with anomalous scattering. The tertiary structure of YPD1 consists of six alpha-helices and a short 310-helix. A four-helix bundle comprises the central core of the molecule and contains the histidine residue that is phosphorylated. Structure-based comparisons of YPD1 to other proteins having a similar function, such as the Escherichia coli ArcB histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) domain and the P1 domain of the CheA kinase, revealed that the helical bundle and several structural features around the active-site histidine residue are conserved between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic kingdoms.Despite limited amino acid sequence homology among HPt domains, our analysis of YPD1 as a prototypical family member, indicates that these phosphotransfer domains are likely to share a similar fold and common features with regard to response regulator binding and mechanism for histidine-aspartate phosphoryl transfer.     

Crystal structure of the CheA histidine phosphotransfer domain that mediates response regulator phosphorylation in bacterial chemotaxis

The x-ray crystal structure of the P1 or H domain of the Salmonella CheA protein has been solved at 2.1-A resolution. The structure is composed of an up-down up-down four-helix bundle that is typical of histidine phosphotransfer or HPt domains such as Escherichia coli ArcB(C) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ypd1. Loop regions and additional structural features distinguish all three proteins. The CheA domain has an additional C-terminal helix that lies over the surface formed by the C and D helices. The phosphoaccepting His-48 is located at a solvent-exposed position in the middle of the B helix where it is surrounded by several residues that are characteristic of other HPt domains. Mutagenesis studies indicate that conserved glutamate and lysine residues that are part of a hydrogen-bond network with His-48 are essential for the ATP-dependent phosphorylation reaction but not for the phosphotransfer reaction with CheY. These results suggest that the CheA-P1 domain may serve as a good model for understanding the general function of HPt domains in complex two-component phosphorelay systems.     

Cytokinins regulate a bidirectional phosphorelay network in Arabidopsis

The cytokinin class of plant hormones plays key roles in regulating diverse developmental and physiological processes. Arabidopsis perceives cytokinins with three related and partially redundant receptor histidine kinases (HKs): CRE1 (the same protein as WOL and AHK4), AHK2, and AHK3 (CRE-family receptors). It is suggested that binding of cytokinins induces autophosphorylation of these HKs and subsequent transfer of the phosphoryl group to a histidine phosphotransfer protein (HPt) and then to a response regulator (RR), ultimately regulating downstream signaling events. Here we demonstrate that, in vitro and in a yeast system, CRE1 is not only a kinase that phosphorylates HPts in the presence of cytokinin but is also a phosphatase that dephosphorylates HPts in the absence of cytokinin. To explore the roles of these activities in planta, we replaced CRE1 with mutant versions of the gene or with AHK2. Replacing CRE1 with CRE1(T278I), which lacks cytokinin binding activity and is locked in the phosphatase form, decreased cytokinin sensitivity. Conversely, replacing CRE1 with AHK2, which favors kinase activity, increased cytokinin sensitivity. These results indicate that in the presence of cytokinins, cytokinin receptors feed phosphate to phosphorelay-integrating HPt proteins. In the absence of cytokinins, CRE1 removes phosphate from HPt proteins, decreasing the system phosphoload.     

Histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) signal transducers implicated in His-to-Asp phosphorelay in Arabidopsis

His to Asp phosphorelay signal transduction mechanisms involve three types of widespread signaling components: a sensor His-kinase, a response regulator, and a histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) domain. In Arabidopsis, several sensor His-kinases have recently been discovered (e.g., ETR1 and CKI1) through extensive genetic studies. Furthermore, a recent search for response regulators in this higher plant revealed that it possesses a group of response regulators (ARR-series), each of which exhibits the phospho-accepting receiver function. However, no signal transducer containing the HPt domain has been reported. Here we identify three distinct Arabidopsis genes (AHP1 to AHP3), each encoding a signal transducer containing a HPt domain. Both in vivo and in vitro evidence that each AHP can function as a phospho-transmitting HPt domain with an active histidine site was obtained by employing both the Escherichia coli and yeast His-Asp phosphorelay systems. It was demonstrated that AHP1 exhibits in vivo ability to complement a mutational lesion of the yeast YPD1 gene, encoding a typical HPt domain involved in an osmosensing signal transduction. It was also demonstrated that AHPs can interact in vitro with ARRs through the His-Asp phosphotransfer reaction. It was thus suggested that the uncovered sensors-AHPs-ARRs lineups may play important roles in propagating environmental stimuli through the multistep His-Asp phosphorelay in Arabidopsis.     

Phosphotransfer reactions of the CbbRRS three-protein two- component system from Rhodopseudomonas palustris CGA010 appear to be controlled by an internal molecular switch on the sensor kinase

The CbbRRS system is an atypical three-protein two-component system that modulates the expression of the cbb(I) CO(2) fixation operon of Rhodopseudomonas palustris, possibly in response to a redox signal. It consists of a membrane-bound hybrid sensor kinase, CbbSR, with a transmitter and receiver domain, and two response regulator proteins, CbbRR1 and CbbRR2. No detectable helix-turn-helix DNA binding domain is associated with either response regulator, but an HPt domain and a second receiver domain are predicted at the C-terminal region of CbbRR1 and CbbRR2, respectively. The abundance of conserved residues predicted to participate in a His-Asp phosphorelay raised the question of their de facto involvement. In this study, the role of the multiple receiver domains was elucidated in vitro by generating site-directed mutants of the putative conserved residues. Distinct phosphorylation patterns were obtained with two truncated versions of the hybrid sensor kinase, CbbSR(T189) and CbbSR(R96) (CbbSR beginning at residues T189 and R96, respectively). These constructs also exhibited substantially different affinities for ATP and phosphorylation stability, which was found to be dependent on a conserved Asp residue (Asp-696) within the kinase receiver domain. Asp-696 also played an important role in defining the specificity of phosphorylation for response regulators CbbRR1 or CbbRR2, and this residue appeared to act in conjunction with residues within the region from Arg-96 to Thr-189 at the N terminus of the sensor kinase. The net effect of concerted interactions at these distinct regions of CbbSR created an internal molecular switch that appears to coordinate a unique branched phosphorelay system.     

Mutational Analysis of the Histidine-containing Phosphotransfer (HPt) Signaling Domain of the ArcB Sensor in Escherichia coli

The Escherichia coli ArcB sensor is involved in anaerobic phosphotransfer signal transduction. ArcB is a hybrid sensor that contains three types of phosphotransfer signaling domains in its primary amino acid sequence, namely, transmitter (or His-kinase), receiver, and histidine-containing phosphotransfer (HPt) domains. However, examination of the function of the newly-discovered HPt domain (named ArcB^c) is still at a very early stage. To gain a general insight into the structure and function of the widespread HPt domains, on the basis of its three-dimensional crystal structure, in this study we constructed a certain set of mutants each having a single amino acid substitution in the HPt domain of ArcB. These ArcB^c mutants were characterized and evaluated, based on the in vivo ability to signal the OmpR receiver via trans-phosphorylation.     

Probing the nucleotide binding and phosphorylation by the histidine kinase of a novel three-protein two-component system from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The two-component signal transduction system from Mycobacterium tuberculosis bears a unique three-protein system comprising of two putative histidine kinases (HK1 and HK2) and one response regulator TcrA. By sequence analysis, HK1 is found to be an adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) binding protein, similar to the nucleotide-binding domain of homologous histidine kinases, and HK2 is a unique histidine containing phosphotransfer (HPt)-mono-domain protein. HK1 is expected to interact with and phosphorylate HK2. Here, we show that HK1 binds 2'(3')-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)adenosine 5'-triphosphate monolithium trisodium salt and ATP with a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio. The ATPase activity of HK1 in the presence of HK2 was measured, and phosphorylation experiments suggested that HK1 acts as a functional kinase and phosphorylates HK2 by interacting with it. Further phosphorylation studies showed transfer of a phosphoryl group from HK2 to the response regulator TcrA. These results indicate a new mode of interaction for phosphotransfer between the two-component system proteins in bacteria.     

Biochemical characterization of a putative cytokinin-responsive His-kinase, CKI1, from Arabidopsis thaliana

His-Asp phosphorelays are evolutionary-conserved powerful biological tactics for intracellular signal transduction. Such a phosphorelay is generally made up of "sensor histidine (His)-kinases", "response regulators", and "histidine-containing (HPt) phosphotransmitters". Results from recent intensive studies suggested that in the higher plant Arabidopsis thaliana, His-Asp phosphorelays may be widely used for propagating environmental stimuli, such as phytohormones (e.g., ethylene and cytokinin). In this study, we characterized, in vitro, the putative cytokinin-responsive CKI1 His-kinase, in terms of His-Asp phosphorelays. It was demonstrated for the first time that the receiver domain in this sensor exhibits a strong phosphohistidine phosphatase activity toward some Arabidopsis HPt phosphotransmitters (AHP1 and AHP2), suggesting the functional importance of the receiver domain for a resumed interaction of the sensor His-kinase with other His-Asp phosphorelay components.     

Histidine kinases and response regulator proteins in two-component signaling systems.

Phosphotransfer-mediated signaling pathways allow cells to sense and respond to environmental stimuli. Autophosphorylating histidine protein kinases provide phosphoryl groups for response regulator proteins which, in turn, function as molecular switches that control diverse effector activities. Structural studies of proteins involved in two-component signaling systems have revealed a modular architecture with versatile conserved domains that are readily adapted to the specific needs of individual systems.