Platelet-derived growth factor-BB-mediated activation of Akt suppresses smooth muscle-specific gene expression through inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase and redistribution of serum response factor

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) inhibits expression of smooth muscle (SM) genes in vascular smooth muscle cells and blocks induction by arginine vasopressin (AVP). We have previously demonstrated that suppression of SM-alpha-actin by PDGF-BB is mediated in part through a Ras-dependent pathway. This study examined the role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)y and its downstream effector, Akt, in regulating SM gene expression. PDGF caused a rapid sustained activation of Akt, whereas AVP caused only a small transient increase. PDGF selectively caused a sustained stimulation of p85/p110 alpha PI3K. In contrast, p85/110 beta PI3K activity was not altered by either PDGF or AVP, whereas both agents caused a delayed activation of Class IB p101/110 gamma PI3K. Expression of a gain-of-function PI3K or myristoylated Akt (myr-Akt) mimicked the inhibitory effect of PDGF on SM-alpha-actin and SM22 alpha expression. Pretreatment with LY 294002 reversed the inhibitory effect of PDGF. Expression of myr-Akt selectively inhibited AVP-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases, which we have shown are critical for induction of these genes. Nuclear extracts from PDGF-stimulated or myr-Akt expressing cells showed reduced serum response factor binding to SM-specific CArG elements. This was associated with appearance of serum response factor in the cytoplasm. These data indicate that activation of p85/p110 alpha/Akt mediates suppression of SM gene expression by PDGF.     

SM22α在细胞骨架组构及血管重塑中的作用

血管平滑肌细胞（VSMC）表型转化是动脉粥样硬化、高血压和血管成形术后再狭窄等血管重塑性疾病的共同病理生理过程。VSMC表型转化过程中平滑肌特异基因的表达变化和细胞骨架的组构是当前研究的热点问题之一。平滑肌22α（SM22α）是近年发现的一种VSMC分化标志物,其表达具有平滑肌组织特异性和细胞表型特异性,该蛋白作为一种肌动蛋白细胞骨架相关蛋白参与VSMC骨架组构和收缩调节。本文就SM22α的结构特征及其在VSMC骨架组构和血管重塑中的作用机制进行综述。     

PDGF-BB下调血管平滑肌标志物SM22α表达的机制

血管平滑肌细胞（vascular smooth muscle cell,VSMC）表型转化是血管重塑性疾病的细胞病理学基础,血小板源性生长因子（platelet-derived growth factor,PDGF）-BB抑制平滑肌分化标志基因表达、加速其降解,是VSMC表型转化的关键。该研究用PDGF-BB刺激VSMC诱导细胞发生表型转化,利用Western blot和免疫共沉淀等技术,检测PDGF-BB对早期分化相关基因平滑肌22 alpha（smooth muscle 22 alpha,SM22α）磷酸化与泛素化的影响。实验结果显示,PDGF-BB促进VSMC增殖;上调增殖相关蛋白PCNA的表达,下调分化相关蛋白SM22α与SMα-actin的表达;诱导SM22α发生磷酸化和泛素化,而且,该过程与SM22α水平下调具有时相相关性;抑制剂阻断分析证实,ERK和PKC参与介导了PDGF-BB诱导的SM22α磷酸化。以上结果提示,在VSMCs表型转化中,PDGF-BB可能是通过激活ERK-PKC信号通路,促进SM22α的磷酸化和泛素依赖的蛋白质降解。     

Induction of smooth muscle alpha-actin in vascular smooth muscle cells by arginine vasopressin is mediated by c-Jun amino-terminal kinases and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase

Exposure of vascular smooth muscle cells to arginine vasopressin (AVP) increases smooth muscle alpha-actin (SM-alpha-actin) expression through activation of the SM- alpha-actin promoter. The goal of this study was to determine the role of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) family in regulation of SM-alpha-actin expression. AVP activated all three MAP kinase family members: ERKs, JNKs, and p38 MAP kinase. Inhibition of JNKs or p38 decreased AVP-stimulated SM-alpha-actin promoter activity, whereas inhibition of ERKs had no effect. A 150-base pair region of the promoter containing two CArG boxes was sufficient to mediate regulation by vasoconstrictors. Mutations in either CArG box decreased AVP-stimulated promoter activity. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays using oligonucleotides corresponding to either CArG box resulted in a complex of similar mobility whose intensity was increased by AVP. Antibodies against serum response factor (SRF) completely super-shifted this complex, indicating that SRF binds to both CArG boxes. Overexpression of SRF increased basal promoter activity, but activity was still stimulated by AVP. AVP stimulation rapidly increased SRF phosphorylation. These data indicate that both JNKs and p38 participate in regulation of SM- alpha-actin expression. SRF, which binds to two critical CArG boxes in the promoter, represents a potential target of these kinases.     

Platelet-derived growth factor-BB represses smooth muscle cell marker genes via changes in binding of MKL factors and histone deacetylases to their promoters

A hallmark of smooth muscle cell (SMC) phenotypic switching is suppression of SMC marker gene expression. Although myocardin has been shown to be a key regulator of this process, the role of its related factors, MKL1 and MKL2, in SMC phenotypic switching remains unknown. The present studies were aimed at determining if: 1) MKL factors contribute to the expression of SMC marker genes in cultured SMCs; and 2) platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-induced repression of SMC marker genes is mediated by suppression of MKL factors. Results of gain- and loss-of-function experiments showed that MKL factors regulated the expression of single and multiple CArG [CC(AT-rich)(6)GG]-containing SMC marker genes, such as smooth muscle (SM) alpha-actin and telokin, but not CArG-independent SMC marker genes such as smoothelin-B. Treatment with PDGF-BB reduced the expression of CArG-containing SMC marker genes, as well as myocardin expression in cultured SMCs, while it had no effect on expression of MKL1 and MKL2. However, of interest, PDGF-BB induced the dissociation of MKL factors from the CArG-containing region of SMC marker genes, as determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. This dissociation was caused by the competition between MKL factors and phosphorylated Elk-1 at early time points, but subsequently by the reduction in acetylated histone H4 levels at these promoter regions mediated by histone deacetylases, HDAC2, HDAC4, and HDAC5. Results provide novel evidence that PDGF-BB-induced repression of SMC marker genes is mediated through combinatorial mechanisms, including downregulation of myocardin expression and inhibition of the association of myocardin/MKL factors with CArG-containing SMC marker gene promoters.     

Apelin-13促进血管平滑肌细胞增殖、迁移和血管新生内膜增生

研究apelin-13对血管平滑肌细胞（vascular smooth muscle cell, VSMC）增殖和迁移的影响及其作用机制.用免疫印迹分析检测apelin-13对VSMC增殖、迁移以及分化相关基因表达的影响,结果表明,apelin-13能以时间和浓度依赖的方式诱导VSMC增殖和迁移相关基因cyclin D1和MMP-2表达,促进细胞增殖和迁移;同时使VSMC分化标志基因SM22α和SM α-actin表达水平降低.而且,用鬼笔环肽对细胞骨架进行染色的结果显示,apelin-13可以促进VSMC从收缩表型向增殖表型转化.体内实验也表明,敲低apelin可抑制球囊损伤诱导的新生内膜形成,提示apelin-13在体内具有促进血管新生内膜形成的作用.总之,本文结果表明,apelin 13通过调节VSMC增殖、迁移以及分化基因表达,进而促进其从分化型向增殖型转化,并向内膜下迁移和增殖.     

血管损伤的新靶点：平滑肌22 alpha

血管平滑肌细胞(vascular smooth muscle cell,VSMC)表型转化是血管损伤性疾病动脉粥样硬化、高血压和血管成形术后再狭窄等的共同病理生理过程.平滑肌22 alpha (smooth muscle 22 alpha, SM22α) 是一种VSMC分化标志物,其表达具有平滑肌组织特异性和细胞表型特异性. 该蛋白不仅作为一种肌动蛋白细胞骨架相关蛋白参与VSMC骨架组构和收缩调节,它还参与VSMC的增殖、炎症和氧化应激等进程. 本文就SM22α 的结构特征及其在VSMC血管损伤中的作用机制进行综述.     

Platelet-derived growth factor regulates actin isoform expression and growth state in cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells

The role of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) in the control of smooth muscle cell (SMC) differentiation was explored in vitro by examining its effects on expression of the smooth muscle (SM) specific contractile protein SM alpha actin in cultured rat aortic SMC. Quiescent, postconfluent SMC express maximal levels of alpha actin and responded to human platelet-derived growth factor (partially purified from platelets) by entering the cell cycle and undergoing approximately one synchronous round of DNA synthesis. Concomitantly, these cultures exhibited a marked reduction in alpha actin synthesis. Chronic treatment with PDGF (72 hours at 8 or 12 hour intervals) was associated with a transient increase in thymidine labeling index and a decrease in alpha actin expression. Interestingly, between 48 and 72 hours following initial treatment, thymidine labeling indices returned to near control levels while SM alpha actin expression remained depressed. This effect was reversible; fractional alpha actin synthesis increased immediately after PDGF removal. When subsequently stimulated with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), cells chronically pretreated with PDGF entered S phase approximately 4 hours earlier than cells pretreated with PDGF vehicle, consistent with the idea that the maintained suppression of alpha actin synthesis in SMC subjected to chronic PDGF treatment was associated with partial cell cycle transit. Chronic treatment with highly purified recombinant PDGF-BB elicited similar effects on alpha actin synthesis and partial cell cycle transit. Flow cytometric analysis of chronic PDGF-treated SMC demonstrated a 25% increase in forward angle light scatter, an index of cell size. These data implicate a possible role for PDGF in regulation of SMC differentiation and suggest a potentially important role for this mitogen in the phenotypic modulation accompanying SMC growth and in mediation of the cellular hypertrophy associated with cell cycle progression.     

血清饥饿可诱导人血管平滑肌细胞再分化

体外培养的分化型血管平滑肌细胞 (vascularsmoothmusclecells ,VSMC)以特异性标志基因表达、长梭形外观及对兴奋剂刺激产生收缩反应为其表型特征 .以血清饥饿法培养处于超汇合 (overconfluence)状态的人VSMC ,观察其分化型标志基因表达活性及其与细胞形态特征和收缩反应性之间的关系 ,探讨细胞生存环境对VSMC基因表达及表型的影响 .研究显示 ,生长至超汇合的VSMC由含血清培养转为血清饥饿后 ,收缩蛋白如SMα肌动蛋白 (SMα actin)、SM2 2α、h1 calponin、肌球蛋白重链 (MHC)SM1和SM2亚型的表达活性明显上调 ,证实血清饥饿诱导的收缩蛋白基因表达和血清应答因子 (serumresponsefactor ,SRF)与CArG顺式元件结合活性的增强有关 .同时 ,血清饥饿还可激活参与VSMC分化调节的转录调控因子SmLIM、Gax和分化相关蛋白HRG 1基因的转录 .随着血清饥饿培养时间的延长 ,VSMC逐渐形成多层、束状、成极性排列的形式 ,对兴奋剂刺激产生的收缩反应明显增强 .结果表明 ,超汇合状态的去分化型VSMC脱离血清刺激后 ,可以再分化成熟并重新获得收缩能力     

Upregulation of intermediate-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel (IKCa1) mediates phenotypic modulation of coronary smooth muscle

A hallmark of smooth muscle cell (SMC) phenotypic modulation in atherosclerosis and restenosis is suppression of SMC differentiation marker genes, proliferation, and migration. Blockade of intermediate-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels (IKCa1) has been shown to inhibit restenosis after carotid balloon injury in the rat; however, whether IKCa1 plays a role in SMC phenotypic modulation is unknown. Our objective was to determine the role of IKCa1 channels in regulating coronary SMC phenotypic modulation and migration. In cultured porcine coronary SMCs, platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) increased TRAM-34 (a specific IKCa1 inhibitor)-sensitive K(+) current 20-fold; increased IKCa1 promoter histone acetylation and c-jun binding; increased IKCa1 mRNA approximately 4-fold; and potently decreased expression of the smooth muscle differentiation marker genes smooth muscle myosin heavy chain (SMMHC), smooth muscle alpha-actin (SMalphaA), and smoothelin-B, as well as myocardin. Importantly, TRAM-34 completely blocked PDGF-BB-induced suppression of SMMHC, SMalphaA, smoothelin-B, and myocardin and inhibited PDGF-BB-stimulated migration by approximately 50%. Similar to TRAM-34, knockdown of endogenous IKCa1 with siRNA also prevented the PDGF-BB-induced increase in IKCa1 and decrease in SMMHC mRNA. In coronary arteries from high fat/high cholesterol-fed swine demonstrating signs of early atherosclerosis, IKCa1 expression was 22-fold higher and SMMHC, smoothelin-B, and myocardin expression significantly reduced in proliferating vs. nonproliferating medial cells. Our findings demonstrate that functional upregulation of IKCa1 is required for PDGF-BB-induced coronary SMC phenotypic modulation and migration and support a similar role for IKCa1 in coronary SMC during early coronary atherosclerosis.     

Serum deprivation results in redifferentiation of human umbilical vascular smooth muscle cells

Phenotypic change of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from a differentiated to a dedifferentiated state accompanies the early stage of atherosclerosis and restenosis. Although much progress has been made in determining the molecular mechanisms involved in VSMC dedifferentiation, research on VSMC redifferentiation is hindered by the lack of an appropriate complete redifferentiation model. We established an in vitro model of redifferentiation by using postconfluent VSMCs from human umbilical artery. We demonstrated that serum-deprived VSMCs are capable of complete redifferentiation. After serum deprivation, postconfluent cultured human umbilical VSMCs became elongated and spindle shaped, with elevation of myofilament density, and reacquired contraction. Expressions of VSMC-specific contractile proteins, such as smooth muscle (SM) -actin, SM-myosin heavy chain, calponin, and SM 22, were increased and reached the levels in differentiated cells after serum deprivation. To determine the molecular mechanism of the phenotypic reversion, the levels of expression, phosphorylation, and binding activity of serum response factor (SRF), a key phenotypic modulator for VSMCs, were measured. The results showed that SRF binding activity with CArG motif was significantly increased after serum deprivation, whereas no changes were found in SRF expression and phosphorylation. The increased SRF binding activity was accompanied by an increase in expression of its coactivators such as myocardin. Furthermore, the phenotypic reversion was markedly inhibited by decoy double-strand oligodeoxynucleotides containing SM -actin CArG motif, which was able to competitively bind to SRF. The results suggested that serum deprivation results in redifferentiation of human umbilical VSMCs. This novel model of VSMC phenotypic reversion should be valuable for research on vascular disease. phenotype reversion; gene expression; serum response factor