Filamin Interacts with Epithelial Sodium Channel and Inhibits Its Channel Function

Epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in the kidneys is critical for Na⁺ balance, extracellular volume, and blood pressure. Altered ENaC function is associated with respiratory disorders, pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1, and Liddle syndrome. ENaC is known to interact with components of the cytoskeleton, but the functional roles remain largely unclear. Here, we examined the interaction between ENaC and filamins, important actin filament components. We first discovered by yeast two-hybrid screening that the C termini of ENaC α and β subunits bind filamin A, B, and C, and we then confirmed the binding by in vitro biochemical assays. We demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation that ENaC, either overexpressed in HEK, HeLa, and melanoma A7 cells or natively expressed in LLC-PK1 and IMCD cells, is in the same complex with native filamin. Furthermore, the biotinylation and co-immunoprecipitation combined assays showed the ENaC-filamin interaction on the cell surface. Using Xenopus oocyte expression and two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology, we found that co-expression of an ENaC-binding domain of filamin substantially reduces ENaC channel function. Western blot and immunohistochemistry experiments revealed that the filamin A C terminus (FLNAC) modestly reduces the expression of the ENaC α subunit in oocytes and A7 cells. After normalizing the current by plasma membrane expression, we found that FLNAC results in ∼50% reduction in the ENaC channel activity. The inhibitory effect of FLNAC was confirmed by lipid bilayer electrophysiology experiments using purified ENaC and FLNAC proteins, which showed that FLNAC substantially reduces ENaC single channel open probability. Taken together, our study demonstrated that filamin reduces ENaC channel function through direct interaction on the cell surface.     

黑腹果蝇抗真菌肽Drosomycin同系物的免疫原性和抗真菌活性

通过黑腹果蝇 Drosophila melanogaster抗真菌肽Drosomycin（Drs）及其同系物Drs-lC和Drs-lE的抗体制备及Western blotting 结果,分析了Drs同系物的免疫原性与其抗真菌活性的关系。研究采用了2种技术路线,分别将Drs、Drs-lC和Drs-lE 基因构建成与细胞生长因子基因 afgf 融合的重组表达质粒 pET-afgf-Drs、pET-afgf-C和pET-afgf-E,以及通过基因同向串连获得重组表达质粒 pRSET-2Drs、4Drs、6Drs 和 pRSET-2E、4E、6E,并将这些重组表达质粒转化到BL21（DE3）plysS受体菌进行诱导表达。分离纯化后的融合蛋白afgf-Drs、afgf-C和afgf-E 以及串连蛋白 4 Drs、4 Drs-lE分别免疫小白鼠获得相应的抗血清。Western blotting免疫原性检测结果表明,Drs及其同系物与各自的抗血清具有强的免疫反应,同时相互间也有交叉免疫反应,提示它们具有相似的主要抗原决定簇,这些抗原决定簇可能与抗真菌活性无关。同系物之间抗真菌活性的差异可能来源于某些细微结构上的差异。     

Proton Sensors in the Pore Domain of the Cardiac Voltage-gated Sodium Channel

Protons impart isoform-specific modulation of inactivation in neuronal, skeletal muscle, and cardiac voltage-gated sodium (Na_V) channels. Although the structural basis of proton block in Na_V channels has been well described, the amino acid residues responsible for the changes in Na_V kinetics during extracellular acidosis are as yet unknown. We expressed wild-type (WT) and two pore mutant constructs (H880Q and C373F) of the human cardiac Na_V channel, Na_V1.5, in Xenopus oocytes. C373F and H880Q both attenuated proton block, abolished proton modulation of use-dependent inactivation, and altered pH modulation of the steady-state and kinetic parameters of slow inactivation. Additionally, C373F significantly reduced the maximum probability of use-dependent inactivation and slow inactivation, relative to WT. H880Q also significantly reduced the maximum probability of slow inactivation and shifted the voltage dependence of activation and fast inactivation to more positive potentials, relative to WT. These data suggest that Cys-373 and His-880 in Na_V1.5 are proton sensors for use-dependent and slow inactivation and have implications in isoform-specific modulation of Na_V channels.     

果蝇先天免疫分子机制研究进展

以果蝇为模式生物,在胚胎发育、基因表达调控、疾病发病机制以及昆虫先天免疫等方面的研究发挥了重要的作用。果蝇的先天免疫系统包括细胞免疫和体液免疫,当其遭受细菌、真菌和病毒等病原体攻击时,果蝇能通过细胞吞噬、集结、包囊作用以及产生抗菌肽等方式来清除入侵的微生物。结合近年来果蝇先天性免疫分子机制的研究进展,对其在病原体识别、信号转导途径及效应机制方面进行综述,为深入研究家蚕、蜜蜂等经济昆虫的免疫机制以及提高它们的经济效益提供参考。     

The NMDA Receptor Promotes Sleep in the Fruit Fly,Drosophila melanogaster

Considerable evidence indicates that sleep is essential for learning and memory. Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a novel model for studying sleep. We previously found a short sleeper mutant, fumin (fmn), and identified its mutation in the dopamine transporter gene. We reported similarities in the molecular basis of sleep and arousal regulation between mammals and Drosophila. In aversive olfactory learning tasks, fmn mutants demonstrate defective memory retention, which suggests an association between sleep and memory. In an attempt to discover additional sleep related genes in Drosophila, we carried out a microarray analysis comparing mRNA expression in heads of fmn and control flies and found that 563 genes are differentially expressed. Next, using the pan-neuronal Gal4 driver elav-Gal4 and UAS-RNA interference (RNAi) to knockdown individual genes, we performed a functional screen. We found that knockdown of the NMDA type glutamate receptor channel gene (Nmdar1) (also known as dNR1) reduced sleep. The NMDA receptor (NMDAR) plays an important role in learning and memory both in Drosophila and mammals. The application of the NMDAR antagonist, MK-801, reduced sleep in control flies, but not in fmn. These results suggest that NMDAR promotes sleep regulation in Drosophila.     

果蝇蛋白质激酶Pitslre通过调控抗菌肽表达参与天然免疫反应

为鉴定新的参与黑腹果蝇(Drosophila melanogaster)天然免疫信号通路调控的分子及作用机制,应用果蝇的Gal4/UAS系统敲低54个蛋白质激酶编码基因,分别利用革兰氏阳性菌（Enterococcus faecalis, E.faecalis）或革兰氏阴性菌（Erwinia carototovovora carototovovora 15, Ecc15）感染基因敲低果蝇,筛选参与果蝇天然免疫反应的蛋白质激酶。结果显示,全身性敲低蛋白质激酶Pitslre的果蝇感染E.faecalis或Ecc15 后,生存率降低,半致死时间LT50分别降低为对照组的66.7%和28.6%。相应的,Pitslre功能缺失导致革兰氏阳性菌和阴性菌分别感染后,Toll及IMD通路下游抗菌肽Drosomycin和Diptercin表达水平明显下降。在脂肪体和血淋巴细胞中特异性敲低Pitslre基因,导致革兰氏阳性菌及阴性菌感染后的果蝇半致死时间LT50分别缩短75%和90%,细菌载量分别升高约10倍。在果蝇S2细胞中,敲低Pitslre基因,导致细胞的抗菌肽Drosomycin、Attacin和Diptercin表达水平分别降低约50%。此外,通过免疫共沉淀实验检测Pitslre与预测存在相互作用的蛋白质TSC1、Rcd5和pbl之间的相互作用。综上所述,蛋白质激酶Pitslre参与果蝇天然免疫反应,在正向调控果蝇天然免疫Toll和IMD通路中发挥重要作用。     

果蝇蛋白质激酶Pitslre通过调控抗菌肽表达参与天然免疫反应

为鉴定新的参与黑腹果蝇(Drosophila melanogaster)天然免疫信号通路调控的分子及作用机制,应用果蝇的Gal4/UAS系统敲低54个蛋白质激酶编码基因,分别利用革兰氏阳性菌（Enterococcus faecalis, E.faecalis）或革兰氏阴性菌（Erwinia carototovovora carototovovora 15, Ecc15）感染基因敲低果蝇,筛选参与果蝇天然免疫反应的蛋白质激酶。结果显示,全身性敲低蛋白质激酶Pitslre的果蝇感染E.faecalis或Ecc15 后,生存率降低,半致死时间LT50分别降低为对照组的66.7%和28.6%。相应的,Pitslre功能缺失导致革兰氏阳性菌和阴性菌分别感染后,Toll及IMD通路下游抗菌肽Drosomycin和Diptercin表达水平明显下降。在脂肪体和血淋巴细胞中特异性敲低Pitslre基因,导致革兰氏阳性菌及阴性菌感染后的果蝇半致死时间LT50分别缩短75%和90%,细菌载量分别升高约10倍。在果蝇S2细胞中,敲低Pitslre基因,导致细胞的抗菌肽Drosomycin、Attacin和Diptercin表达水平分别降低约50%。此外,通过免疫共沉淀实验检测Pitslre与预测存在相互作用的蛋白质TSC1、Rcd5和pbl之间的相互作用。综上所述,蛋白质激酶Pitslre参与果蝇天然免疫反应,在正向调控果蝇天然免疫Toll和IMD通路中发挥重要作用。     

Innate immune responses of Drosophila melanogaster are altered by spaceflight

Alterations and impairment of immune responses in humans present a health risk for space exploration missions. The molecular mechanisms underpinning innate immune defense can be confounded by the complexity of the acquired immune system of humans. Drosophila (fruit fly) innate immunity is simpler, and shares many similarities with human innate immunity at the level of molecular and genetic pathways. The goals of this study were to elucidate fundamental immune processes in Drosophila affected by spaceflight and to measure host-pathogen responses post-flight. Five containers, each containing ten female and five male fruit flies, were housed and bred on the space shuttle (average orbit altitude of 330.35 km) for 12 days and 18.5 hours. A new generation of flies was reared in microgravity. In larvae, the immune system was examined by analyzing plasmatocyte number and activity in culture. In adults, the induced immune responses were analyzed by bacterial clearance and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of selected genes following infection with E. coli. The RNA levels of relevant immune pathway genes were determined in both larvae and adults by microarray analysis. The ability of larval plasmatocytes to phagocytose E. coli in culture was attenuated following spaceflight, and in parallel, the expression of genes involved in cell maturation was downregulated. In addition, the level of constitutive expression of pattern recognition receptors and opsonins that specifically recognize bacteria, and of lysozymes, antimicrobial peptide (AMP) pathway and immune stress genes, hallmarks of humoral immunity, were also reduced in larvae. In adults, the efficiency of bacterial clearance measured in vivo following a systemic infection with E. coli post-flight, remained robust. We show that spaceflight altered both cellular and humoral immune responses in Drosophila and that the disruption occurs at multiple interacting pathways.     

Transferrin 1 Functions in Iron Trafficking and Genetically Interacts with Ferritin in Drosophila melanogaster

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Noninvasive Analysis of Microbiome Dynamics in the Fruit Fly Drosophila melanogaster

The diversity and structure of the intestinal microbial community has a strong influence on life history. To understand how hosts and microbes interact, model organisms with comparatively simple microbial communities, such as the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), offer key advantages. However, studies of the Drosophila microbiome are limited to a single point in time, because flies are typically sacrificed for DNA extraction. In order to test whether noninvasive approaches, such as sampling of fly feces, could be a means to assess fly-associated communities over time on the same cohort of flies, we compared the microbial communities of fly feces, dissected fly intestines, and whole flies across three different Drosophila strains. Bacterial species identified in either whole flies or isolated intestines were reproducibly found in feces samples. Although the bacterial communities of feces and intestinal samples were not identical, they shared similarities and obviously the same origin. In contrast to material from whole flies and intestines, feces samples were not compromised by Wolbachia spp. infections, which are widespread in laboratory and wild strains. In a proof-of-principle experiment, we showed that simple nutritional interventions, such as a high-fat diet or short-term starvation, had drastic and long-lasting effects on the micobiome. Thus, the analysis of feces can supplement the toolbox for microbiome studies in Drosophila, unleashing the full potential of such studies in time course experiments where multiple samples from single populations are obtained during aging, development, or experimental manipulations.     

Independently Controlled Wing Stroke Patterns in the Fruit Fly Drosophila melanogaster

Flies achieve supreme flight maneuverability through a small set of miniscule steering muscles attached to the wing base. The fast flight maneuvers arise from precisely timed activation of the steering muscles and the resulting subtle modulation of the wing stroke. In addition, slower modulation of wing kinematics arises from changes in the activity of indirect flight muscles in the thorax. We investigated if these modulations can be described as a superposition of a limited number of elementary deformations of the wing stroke that are under independent physiological control. Using a high-speed computer vision system, we recorded the wing motion of tethered flying fruit flies for up to 12 000 consecutive wing strokes at a sampling rate of 6250 Hz. We then decomposed the joint motion pattern of both wings into components that had the minimal mutual information (a measure of statistical dependence). In 100 flight segments measured from 10 individual flies, we identified 7 distinct types of frequently occurring least-dependent components, each defining a kinematic pattern (a specific deformation of the wing stroke and the sequence of its activation from cycle to cycle). Two of these stroke deformations can be associated with the control of yaw torque and total flight force, respectively. A third deformation involves a change in the downstroke-to-upstroke duration ratio, which is expected to alter the pitch torque. A fourth kinematic pattern consists in the alteration of stroke amplitude with a period of 2 wingbeat cycles, extending for dozens of cycles. Our analysis indicates that these four elementary kinematic patterns can be activated mutually independently, and occur both in isolation and in linear superposition. The results strengthen the available evidence for independent control of yaw torque, pitch torque, and total flight force. Our computational method facilitates systematic identification of novel patterns in large kinematic datasets.     

Impairment of proprioceptive movement and mechanical nociception in Drosophila melanogaster larvae lacking Ppk30, a Drosophila member of the Degenerin/Epithelial Sodium Channel family

The mechanosensory neurons of Drosophila larvae are demonstrably activated by diverse mechanical stimuli, but the mechanisms underlying this function are not completely understood. Here we report a genetic, immunohistochemical, and electrophysiological analysis of the Ppk30 ion channel, a member of the Drosophila pickpocket (ppk) family, counterpart of the mammalian Degenerin/Epithelial Na⁺ Channel family. Ppk30 mutant larvae displayed deficits in proprioceptive movement and mechanical nociception, which are detected by class IV sensory (mdIV) neurons. The same neurons also detect heat nociception, which was not impaired in ppk30 mutant larvae. Similarly, Ppk30 mutation did not alter gentle touch mechanosensation, a distinct mechanosensation detected by other neurons, suggesting that Ppk30 has a functional role in mechanosensation in mdIV neurons. Consistently, Ppk30 was expressed in class IV neurons, but was not detectable in other larval skin sensory neurons. Mutant phenotypes were rescued by expressing Ppk30 in mdIV neurons. Electrophysiological analysis of heterologous cells expressing Ppk30 did not detect mechanosensitive channel activities, but did detect acid‐induced currents. These data show that Ppk30 has a role in mechanosensation, but not in thermosensation, in class IV neurons, and possibly has other functions related to acid response.     

The Legionella pneumophila EnhC Protein Interferes with Immunostimulatory Muramyl Peptide Production to Evade Innate Immunity

Successful pathogens have evolved to evade innate immune recognition of microbial molecules by pattern recognition receptors (PRR), which control microbial growth in host tissues. Upon Legionella pneumophila infection of macrophages, the cytosolic PRR Nod1 recognizes anhydro-disaccharide-tetrapeptide (anhDSTP) generated by soluble lytic transglycosylase (SltL), the predominant bacterial peptidoglycan degrading enzyme, to activate NF-κB-dependent innate immune responses. We show that L.?pneumophila periplasmic protein EnhC, which is uniquely required for bacterial replication within macrophages, interferes with SltL to lower anhDSTP production. L.?pneumophila mutant strains lacking EnhC (ΔenhC) increase Nod1-dependent NF-κB activation in host cells, while reducing SltL activity in?a ΔenhC strain restores intracellular bacterial growth. Further, L.?pneumophila ΔenhC is specifically rescued in Nod1- but not Nod2-deficient macrophages, arguing that EnhC facilitates evasion from Nod1 recognition. These results indicate that?a bacterial pathogen regulates peptidoglycan degradation to control the production of PRR ligands and evade innate immune recognition.     

Phylogenetic Characterization of Two Novel Commensal Bacteria Involved with Innate Immune Homeostasis in Drosophila melanogaster

During a previous study on the molecular interaction between commensal bacteria and host gut immunity, two novel bacterial strains, A911^T and G707^T, were isolated from the gut of Drosophila melanogaster. In this study, these strains were characterized in a polyphasic taxonomic study using phenotypic, genetic, and chemotaxonomic analyses. We show that the strains represent novel species in the family Acetobacteraceae. Strain G707^T, a highly pathogenic organism, represents a new species in the genus Gluconobacter, “Gluconobacter morbifer” sp. nov. (type strain G707 = KCTC 22116^T = JCM 15512^T). Strain A911^T, dominantly present in the normal Drosphila gut community, represents a novel genus and species, designated “Commensalibacter intestini” gen. nov., sp. nov. (type strain A911 = KCTC 22117^T = JCM 15511^T).     

dTULP,the Drosophila melanogaster Homolog of Tubby,Regulates Transient Receptor Potential Channel Localization in Cilia

Mechanically gated ion channels convert sound into an electrical signal for the sense of hearing. In Drosophila melanogaster, several transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have been implicated to be involved in this process. TRPN (NompC) and TRPV (Inactive) channels are localized in the distal and proximal ciliary zones of auditory receptor neurons, respectively. This segregated ciliary localization suggests distinct roles in auditory transduction. However, the regulation of this localization is not fully understood. Here we show that the Drosophila Tubby homolog, King tubby (hereafter called dTULP) regulates ciliary localization of TRPs. dTULP-deficient flies show uncoordinated movement and complete loss of sound-evoked action potentials. Inactive and NompC are mislocalized in the cilia of auditory receptor neurons in the dTulp mutants, indicating that dTULP is required for proper cilia membrane protein localization. This is the first demonstration that dTULP regulates TRP channel localization in cilia, and suggests that dTULP is a protein that regulates ciliary neurosensory functions.     

Dysfunction of the Scn8a Voltage-gated Sodium Channel Alters Sleep Architecture,Reduces Diurnal Corticosterone Levels,and Enhances Spatial Memory

Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) are responsible for the initiation and propagation of transient depolarizing currents and play a critical role in the electrical signaling between neurons. A null mutation in the VGSC gene SCN8A, which encodes the transmembrane protein Na_v1.6, was identified previously in a human family. Heterozygous mutation carriers displayed a range of phenotypes, including ataxia, cognitive deficits, and emotional instability. A possible role for SCN8A was also proposed in studies examining the genetic basis of attempted suicide and bipolar disorder. In addition, mice with a Scn8a loss-of-function mutation (Scn8a^med-Tg/+) show altered anxiety and depression-like phenotypes. Because psychiatric abnormalities are often associated with altered sleep and hormonal patterns, we evaluated heterozygous Scn8a^med-jo/+ mutants for alterations in sleep-wake architecture, diurnal corticosterone levels, and behavior. Compared with their wild-type littermates, Scn8a^med-jo/+ mutants experience more non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep, a chronic impairment of REM sleep generation and quantity, and a lowered and flattened diurnal rhythm of corticosterone levels. No robust differences were observed between mutants and wild-type littermates in locomotor activity or in behavioral paradigms that evaluate anxiety or depression-like phenotypes; however, Scn8a^med-jo/+ mutants did show enhanced spatial memory. This study extends the spectrum of phenotypes associated with mutations in Scn8a and suggests a novel role for altered sodium channel function in human sleep disorders.