Lessons from two human chromatin diseases, ICF syndrome and Rett syndrome

Spatial organisation of DNA into chromatin profoundly affects gene expression and function. The recent association of genes controlling chromatin structure to human pathologies resulted in a better comprehension of the interplay between regulation and function. Among many chromatin disorders we will discuss Rett and immunodeficiency, centromeric instability and facial anomalies (ICF) syndromes. Both diseases are caused by defects related to DNA methylation machinery, with Rett syndrome affecting the transduction of the repressive signal from the methyl CpG binding protein prototype, MeCP2, and ICF syndrome affecting the genetic control of DNA methylation, by the DNA methyltransferase DNMT3B. Rather than listing survey data, our aim is to highlight how a deeper comprehension of gene regulatory web may arise from studies of such pathologies. We also maintain that fundamental studies may offer chances for a therapeutic approach focused on these syndromes, which, in turn, may become paradigmatic for this increasing class of diseases.     

DNA methylation variability at growth-related imprints does not contribute to overweight in monozygotic twins discordant for BMI

Defective genomic imprinting is often associated with syndromes that include abnormal growth as a clinical phenotype. However, whether differential methylation at imprinted loci also contributes to nonsyndromic abnormal body weight regulation is yet unknown. In this study, we investigated a potential contribution of aberrant DNA methylation at nine differentially methylated regions (DMRs) to the development of nonsyndromic overweight. Sixteen monozygotic (MZ) twins discordant for BMI (BMI difference ranging from 2.9-9.5 kg/m(2)) were recruited from the East Flanders Prospective Twin Survey. DNA extracted from saliva samples was bisulfite-treated followed by PCR amplification of target regions in DMRs most representative for abnormal growth syndromes: KvDMR1, H19 CTCF4, H19 CTCF6, IGF2 DMR0, IGF2 DMR2, GRB10, MEST, SNRPN, GNAS XL-α-s and GNAS Exon1A. At the DMRs analyzed, methylation-dependent primer extension experiments revealed only small intrapair differences in methylation indexes (MI) between the heavy and lean co-twins. In addition, no significant correlations between intrapair BMI differences and intrapair differences in MI were observed. In conclusion, DNA methylation variability at the nine DMRs analyzed does not seem to contribute to the discordancy in BMI observed in these MZ twins.     

DNA methylation in mammalian development and disease

Epigenetic modification of the cytosine base of DNA by its methylation introduced the possibility that beyond the inherent information contained within the nucleotide sequence there was an additional layer of information added to the underlying genetic code. DNA methylation has been implicated in a wide range of biological functions, including an essential developmental role in the reprogramming of germ cells and early embryos, the repression of endogenous retrotransposons, and a generalized role in gene expression. Special functions of DNA methylation include the marking of one of the parental alleles of many imprinted genes, a group of genes essential for growth and development in mammals with a unique parent-of-origin expression pattern, a role in stabilizing X-chromosome inactivation, and centromere function. In this regard, it is not surprising that errors in establishing or maintaining patterns of methylation are associated with a diverse group of human diseases and syndromes.     

Differential epigenetic marking on imprinted genes and consequences in human diseases

At the time of fertilisation, the parental genomes have a strikingly different organisation. Sperm DNA is packaged globally with protamines, whereas the oocyte's genome is wrapped around nucleosomes. The maternal and paternal genomes are functionally different as well, and are both required for normal uterine and postnatal development. The functional requirement of both parental genomes is a consequence of differential epigenetic marking by DNA methylation during oogenesis and spermatogenesis, on a group of genes called imprinted genes. After fertilisation, these parental marks persist throughout development and convey the allelic expression of imprinted genes. Pathological perturbation of methylation imprints, before fertilisation in the germ cells, or during development, gives rise to growth-related syndromes, and is frequently observed in cancer as well. Alteration of imprints is thought to occur early in carcinogenesis and shows similarities with the acquisition of aberrant DNA methylation at tumour suppressor genes. This suggests that similar underlying mechanisms could be involved.     

A DNA methylation imprint, determined by the sex of the parent, distinguishes the angelman and Prader-Willi syndromes

The Angelman (AS) and Prader-Willi (PWS) syndromes are two clinically distinct disorders that are caused by a differential parental origin of chromosome 15q11-q13 deletions. Both also can result from uniparental disomy (the inheritance of both copies of chromosome 15 from only one parent). Loss of the paternal copy of 15q11-q13, whether by deletion or maternal uniparental disomy, leads to PWS, whereas a maternal deletion or paternal uniparental disomy leads to AS. The differential modification in expression of certain mammalian genes dependent upon parental origin is known as genomic imprinting, and AS and PWS represent the best examples of this phenomenon in humans. Although the molecular mechanisms of genomic imprinting are unknown, DNA methylation has been postulated to play a role in the imprinting process. Using restriction digests with the methyl-sensitive enzymes HpaII and HhaI and probing Southern blots with several genomic and cDNA probes, we have systematically scanned segments of 15q11-q13 for DNA methylation differences between patients with PWS (20 deletion, 20 uniparental disomy) and those with AS (26 deletion, 1 uniparental disomy). The highly evolutionarily conserved cDNA, DN34, identifies distinct differences in DNA methylation of the parental alleles at the D15S9 locus. Thus, DNA methylation may be used as a reliable, postnatal diagnostic tool in these syndromes. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate the first known epigenetic event, dependent on the sex of the parent, for a locus within 15q11-q13. We propose that expression of the gene detected by DN34 is regulated by genomic imprinting and, therefore, that it is a candidate gene for PWS and/or AS.     

Multilocus loss of DNA methylation in individuals with mutations in the histone H3 Lysine 4 Demethylase KDM5C

Background

A number of neurodevelopmental syndromes are caused by mutations in genes encoding proteins that normally function in epigenetic regulation. Identification of epigenetic alterations occurring in these disorders could shed light on molecular pathways relevant to neurodevelopment.

Results

Using a genome-wide approach, we identified genes with significant loss of DNA methylation in blood of males with intellectual disability and mutations in the X-linked KDM5C gene, encoding a histone H3 lysine 4 demethylase, in comparison to age/sex matched controls. Loss of DNA methylation in such individuals is consistent with known interactions between DNA methylation and H3 lysine 4 methylation. Further, loss of DNA methylation at the promoters of the three top candidate genes FBXL5, SCMH1, CACYBP was not observed in more than 900 population controls. We also found that DNA methylation at these three genes in blood correlated with dosage of KDM5C and its Y-linked homologue KDM5D. In addition, parallel sex-specific DNA methylation profiles in brain samples from control males and females were observed at FBXL5 and CACYBP.

Conclusions

We have, for the first time, identified epigenetic alterations in patient samples carrying a mutation in a gene involved in the regulation of histone modifications. These data support the concept that DNA methylation and H3 lysine 4 methylation are functionally interdependent. The data provide new insights into the molecular pathogenesis of intellectual disability. Further, our data suggest that some DNA methylation marks identified in blood can serve as biomarkers of epigenetic status in the brain.     

Oligomerization of DNMT3A controls the mechanism of de novo DNA methylation

DNMT3A is one of two human de novo DNA methyltransferases essential for regulating gene expression through cellular development and differentiation. Here we describe the consequences of single amino acid mutations, including those implicated in the development of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndromes, at the DNMT3A·DNMT3A homotetramer and DNMT3A·DNMT3L heterotetramer interfaces. A model for the DNMT3A homotetramer was developed via computational interface scanning and tested using light scattering and electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Distinct oligomeric states were functionally characterized using fluorescence anisotropy and steady-state kinetics. Replacement of residues that result in DNMT3A dimers, including those identified in AML patients, show minor changes in methylation activity but lose the capacity for processive catalysis on multisite DNA substrates, unlike the highly processive wild-type enzyme. Our results are consistent with the bimodal distribution of DNA methylation in vivo and the loss of clustered methylation in AML patients. Tetramerization with the known interacting partner DNMT3L rescues processive catalysis, demonstrating that protein binding at the DNMT3A tetramer interface can modulate methylation patterning. Our results provide a structural mechanism for the regulation of DNMT3A activity and epigenetic imprinting.     

Epigenetic deregulation of genomic imprinting in human disorders and following assisted reproduction

Imprinted genes play important roles in the regulation of growth and development, and several have been shown to influence behavior. Their allele-specific expression depends on inheritance from either the mother or the father, and is regulated by "imprinting control regions" (ICRs). ICRs are controlled by DNA methylation, which is present on one of the two parental alleles only. These allelic methylation marks are established in either the female or the male germline, following the erasure of preexisting DNA methylation in the primordial germ cells. After fertilization, the allelic DNA methylation at ICRs is maintained in all somatic cells of the developing embryo. This epigenetic "life cycle" of imprinting (germline erasure, germline establishment, and somatic maintenance) can be disrupted in several human diseases, including Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS), Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS), Angelman syndrome and Hydatidiform mole. In the neurodevelopmental Rett syndrome, the way the ICR mediates imprinted expression is perturbed. Recent studies indicate that assisted reproduction technologies (ART) can sometimes affect the epigenetic cycle of imprinting as well, and that this gives rise to imprinting disease syndromes. This finding warrants careful monitoring of the epigenetic effects, and absolute risks, of currently used and novel reproduction technologies.     

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics with Extended Dosing of CC-486 in Patients with Hematologic Malignancies

CC-486 (oral azacitidine) is an epigenetic modifier in development for patients with myelodysplastic syndromes and acute myeloid leukemia. In part 1 of this two-part study, a 7-day CC-486 dosing schedule showed clinical activity, was generally well tolerated, and reduced DNA methylation. Extending dosing of CC-486 beyond 7 days would increase duration of azacitidine exposure. We hypothesized that extended dosing would therefore provide more sustained epigenetic activity. Reported here are the pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) profiles of CC-486 extended dosing schedules in patients with myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML) or acute myeloid leukemia (AML) from part 2 of this study. PK and/or PD data were available for 59 patients who were sequentially assigned to 1 of 4 extended CC-486 dosing schedules: 300mg once-daily or 200mg twice-daily for 14 or 21 days per 28-day cycle. Both 300mg once-daily schedules and the 200mg twice-daily 21-day schedule significantly (all P < .05) reduced global DNA methylation in whole blood at all measured time points (days 15, 22, and 28 of the treatment cycle), with sustained hypomethylation at cycle end compared with baseline. CC-486 exposures and reduced DNA methylation were significantly correlated. Patients who had a hematologic response had significantly greater methylation reductions than non-responding patients. These data demonstrate that extended dosing of CC-486 sustains epigenetic effects through the treatment cycle.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00528983     

Analysis of the methylation status of imprinted genes based on methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction combined with denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography

A procedure for the analysis of the methylation status of imprinted genes is described. The method offers a rapid and reliable alternative to conventional methods such as Southern blots and methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (i.e., allele-specific methylation-specific PCR). The efficient resolution of the differentially methylated alleles is demonstrated for three human imprinted genes: SNRPN, LIT1 (alias KCNQ1OT1), and H19. Abnormal imprinting of SNRPN is associated with the Angelman/Prader-Willi syndromes, and that of LIT1 and H19 with the Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. The method is based on methylation-specific PCR followed by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (MSP/DHPLC). Briefly, genomic DNA is initially subjected to an in vitro bisulfite treatment, whereby unmethylated cytosines are deaminated. Subsequent PCR amplifications, using primers specific for modified DNA, are aimed at DNA segments that show parent-of-origin-specific methylation. PCR conditions are chosen that allow an efficient amplification of both alleles. The PCR products representing the two alleles are identical in size; they differ, however, at a number of positions within the amplified DNA segment. The DHPLC analysis allows very efficient resolution of the two populations of PCR products, providing qualitative and quantitative results.     

DNA甲基化与肿瘤

表观遗传指不涉及DNA序列改变的,可随细胞分裂而遗传的基因组修饰作用;DNA甲基化是其中研究最多的基因表达调节机制。异常DNA甲基化可致肿瘤发生,它亦是肿瘤基因诊断和治疗的靶点。文章介绍DNA甲基化基本概念、作用效果及其可能机制;并讨论异常DNA甲基化与肿瘤的关联,包括肿瘤中DNA异常甲基化原因、异常甲基化致瘤机制及基因甲基化研究在肿瘤诊治中的应用等。     

Different measures of “genome-wide” DNA methylation exhibit unique properties in placental and somatic tissues

DNA methylation of CpGs located in two types of repetitive elements—LINE1 (L1) and Alu—is used to assess “global” changes in DNA methylation in studies of human disease and environmental exposure. L1 and Alu contribute close to 30% of all base pairs in the human genome and transposition of repetitive elements is repressed through DNA methylation. Few studies have investigated whether repetitive element DNA methylation is associated with DNA methylation at other genomic regions, or the biological and technical factors that influence potential associations. Here, we assess L1 and Alu DNA methylation by Pyrosequencing of consensus sequences and using subsets of probes included in the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation27 BeadChip array. We show that evolutionary age and assay method affect the assessment of repetitive element DNA methylation. Additionally, we compare Pyrosequencing results for repetitive elements to average DNA methylation of CpG islands, as assessed by array probes classified into strong, weak and non-islands. We demonstrate that each of these dispersed sequences exhibits different patterns of tissue-specific DNA methylation. Correlation of DNA methylation suggests an association between L1 and weak CpG island DNA methylation in some of the tissues examined. We caution, however, that L1, Alu and CpG island DNA methylation are distinct measures of dispersed DNA methylation and one should not be used in lieu of another. Analysis of DNA methylation data is complex and assays may be influenced by environment and pathology in different or complementary ways.     

Different measures of “genome-wide” DNA methylation exhibit unique properties in placental and somatic tissues

DNA methylation of CpGs located in two types of repetitive elements—LINE1 (L1) and Alu—is used to assess “global” changes in DNA methylation in studies of human disease and environmental exposure. L1 and Alu contribute close to 30% of all base pairs in the human genome and transposition of repetitive elements is repressed through DNA methylation. Few studies have investigated whether repetitive element DNA methylation is associated with DNA methylation at other genomic regions, or the biological and technical factors that influence potential associations. Here, we assess L1 and Alu DNA methylation by Pyrosequencing of consensus sequences and using subsets of probes included in the Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation27 BeadChip array. We show that evolutionary age and assay method affect the assessment of repetitive element DNA methylation. Additionally, we compare Pyrosequencing results for repetitive elements to average DNA methylation of CpG islands, as assessed by array probes classified into strong, weak and non-islands. We demonstrate that each of these dispersed sequences exhibits different patterns of tissue-specific DNA methylation. Correlation of DNA methylation suggests an association between L1 and weak CpG island DNA methylation in some of the tissues examined. We caution, however, that L1, Alu and CpG island DNA methylation are distinct measures of dispersed DNA methylation and one should not be used in lieu of another. Analysis of DNA methylation data is complex and assays may be influenced by environment and pathology in different or complementary ways.     

DNA methylation in plants: relationship to small RNAs and histone modifications, and functions in transposon inactivation

DNA methylation is a type of epigenetic marking that strongly influences chromatin structure and gene expression in plants and mammals. Over the past decade, DNA methylation has been intensively investigated in order to elucidate its control mechanisms. These studies have shown that small RNAs are involved in the induction of DNA methylation, that there is a relationship between DNA methylation and histone methylation, and that the base excision repair pathway has an important role in DNA demethylation. Some aspects of DNA methylation have also been shown to be shared with mammals, suggesting that the regulatory pathways are, in part at least, evolutionarily conserved. Considerable progress has been made in elucidating the mechanisms that control DNA methylation; however, many aspects of the mechanisms that read the information encoded by DNA methylation and mediate this into downstream regulation remain uncertain, although some candidate proteins have been identified. DNA methylation has a vital role in the inactivation of transposons, suggesting that DNA methylation is a key factor in the evolution and adaptation of plants.     

不同倍性西瓜基因组DNA甲基化水平与模式的MSAP分析

DNA甲基化是表观遗传修饰的主要方式之一,在基因表达调控中发挥重要作用。本研究以不同倍性（2x、3x、4x）西瓜为试材,采用基于DNA甲基化敏感酶的扩增多态性分析（Methylation-Sensitive Ampliftcation Polymorphism,MSAP）方法,在全基因组水平上探究西瓜同源多倍化过程中DNA序列中CCGG位点的甲基化水平及模式变化特征。研究中选用23对选扩引物,共检测到1883个基因位点。二倍体、三倍体、四倍体中检测到的位点数分别为647、655和581;其中发生甲基化的位点数分别为181、150和159。相应的扩增总甲基化率分别为28．0％、22．9％和27．4％：全甲基化位点数分别为121、80和82,相应的全甲基化率分别为18．7％、12．2％和14．1％。进一步对不同倍性西瓜DNA甲基化模式的变化特征进行分析,结果显示：四倍体西瓜与二倍体西瓜相比有超过半数的位点（54．4％）DNA甲基化模式发生了变化,其与三倍体西瓜相比也有近一半的位点（45．4％）DNA甲基化模式发生了变化,并且变化趋势都以四倍体西瓜甲基化程度升高为主：而三倍体西瓜与二倍体西瓜相比．虽然也有41．6％的位点DNA甲基化模式发生了改变,但变化趋势以三倍体西瓜甲基化程度降低略占优势：与之相似,三倍体西瓜与四倍体相比较。甲基化的变化趋势也是以三倍体西瓜甲基化程度降低为主。以上结果表明：不同倍性西瓜中DNA甲基化事件虽均有发生．但不论是从总甲基化率还是全甲基化率来看,DNA甲基化水平与倍性高低关系不大．三倍体西瓜表现出较为显著的低甲基化水平特征。DNA甲基化模式的分析也表明。与二倍体及四倍体西瓜相比．三倍体西瓜DNA甲基化模式的调整主要以去甲基化为主。显示出三倍体西瓜基因组独特的DNA甲基化特征。本研究为进一步从表观遗传学的角度探讨西瓜的三倍体优?     

The imprinting mechanism of the Prader-Willi/Angelman regional control center

The 2 Mb domain on chromosome 15q11-q13 that carries the imprinted genes involved in Prader-Willi (PWS) and Angelman (AS) syndromes is under the control of an imprinting center comprising two regulatory regions, the PWS-SRO located around the SNRPN promoter and the AS-SRO located 35 kb upstream. Here we describe the results of an analysis of the epigenetic features of these two sequences and their interaction. The AS-SRO is sensitive to DNase I, and packaged with acetylated histone H4 and methylated histone H3(K4) only on the maternal allele, and this imprinted epigenetic structure is maintained in dividing cells despite the absence of clearcut differential DNA methylation. Genetic analysis shows that the maternal AS-SRO is essential for setting up the DNA methylation state and closed chromatin structure of the neighboring PWS-SRO. In contrast, the PWS-SRO has no influence on the epigenetic features of the AS-SRO. These results suggest a stepwise, unidirectional program in which structural imprinting at the AS-SRO brings about allele-specific repression of the maternal PWS-SRO, thereby preventing regional activation of genes on this allele.