Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. 4. impact on floristic diversity and population structure in a thorn scrub forest

Impact of extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) was analyzed in a thorn scrub forest in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) wildlife sanctuary, India. Six species are most commonly extracted from BRT scrub for subsistence and income generation by an aboriginal tribe, the Soliga. Although the forest has been provided protection from indiscriminate felling since 1978 under a wildlife sanctuary cover, changes in vegetation structure are still occurring as a consequence of anthropogenic pressure in the form of extraction of fuelwood and other NTFPs. The results indicate that large woody species are being replaced by small woody species. The population structure also is becoming increasingly skewed to the smaller size classes due to extraction-bound mortality of the individuals, particularly those>7 cm dbh and above. The data suggest that the scrub community itself may be a manifestation of long persisting anthropogenic pressure in the form of extraction of a variety of forest products, and it currently represents a downward transition from a deciduous forest to a shrub thicket.     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on regeneration,population structure,and species composition

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has recently gained considerable attention as a means to enhance rural incomes and conserve tropical forests. However, there is little information on the amounts of products collected per unit area and the impact of extraction on forest structure and composition. In this paper we estimate the quantities of selected products gathered by the Soligas, the indigenous people in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) sanctuary in Karnataka, India, and examine the effect of extraction on forest structure and composition. Two sites, distant (DS) and proximal (PS), were identified based on the proximity to a Soliga settlement. The frequency of different size classes indicates that regeneration overall is poor in the area. The two sites show differences in species richness, basal area, and tree mortality. Furthermore, non-timber forest product species show a greater deficit of small size classes than the timber forest species, suggesting that regeneration is affected by collection of seeds and fruits from non-timber forest product species. Regeneration, however, may also be affected by other anthropogenic pressures such as fire, grazing and competition with weeds.     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the Forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 3. Productivity,extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of amla phyllanthus emblica, (Euphorbiaceae)

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) depends upon harvesting a small fraction of the total productivity. Over-exploitation can lead to a loss of biodiversity, but a low level of extraction, without value addition at the point of origin, is usually not economically feasible for extractors. Extraction and productivity levels per unit area for most non-timber forest products are unknown, nor do we have much information about value addition at various points in the marketing channels. Here we determine extraction and productivity levels for Amla trees (Phyllanthus emblica), which yield fruits that are used for a wide variety of purposes in preparation of various foods, beverages and medicines. We also present preliminary data on the price appreciation of the fruit for one of the processed products. We have determined that the current level of extraction, 60-80% of all fruits at the population level, may have a negative effect on new recruitment. We present a model for value addition that has the potential to enhance income and reduce the level of extraction. This model is currently being implemented by the Soliga community with the assistance of a non-governmental organization.     

Ecology and Impacts of the Invasive Species, Lantana camara, in a Social-Ecological System in South India: Perspectives from Local Knowledge

We explored how the forest-dwelling Soliga community of South India views and explains biological invasions, and how local knowledge can inform scientific knowledge on biological invasions. We used an interview schedule with open-ended questions to solicit Soliga opinion on Lantana camara (lantana) invasion. The Soliga cited three reasons for lantana spread: its prolific fruit output and wide seed dispersal, change in fire management, and historical extraction of grass and bamboo. The Soliga believe that lantana invasion has had negative effects on the ecosystem and their livelihoods. Tabling scientific knowledge with local knowledge has improved our understanding of lantana invasion. The role of existing lantana in colonizing neighboring areas, and the response of native tree communities to lantana were common to both local and scientific sources. However, the Soliga view provides a more nuanced perspective of the lantana-fire relationship (contextually based on lantana density) with fires suppressing lantana when lantana density was low. This is contrary to views held by foresters and biologists, that fires are uniformly detrimental and promote lantana. Our study shows that examining Soliga observations has improved understanding of the invasion process and presents avenues for future lantana management.     

Biomass Increases Go under Cover: Woody Vegetation Dynamics in South African Rangelands

Woody biomass dynamics are an expression of ecosystem function, yet biomass estimates do not provide information on the spatial distribution of woody vegetation within the vertical vegetation subcanopy. We demonstrate the ability of airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) to measure aboveground biomass and subcanopy structure, as an explanatory tool to unravel vegetation dynamics in structurally heterogeneous landscapes. We sampled three communal rangelands in Bushbuckridge, South Africa, utilised by rural communities for fuelwood harvesting. Woody biomass estimates ranged between 9 Mg ha^-1 on gabbro geology sites to 27 Mg ha^-1 on granitic geology sites. Despite predictions of woodland depletion due to unsustainable fuelwood extraction in previous studies, biomass in all the communal rangelands increased between 2008 and 2012. Annual biomass productivity estimates (10–14% p.a.) were higher than previous estimates of 4% and likely a significant contributor to the previous underestimations of modelled biomass supply. We show that biomass increases are attributable to growth of vegetation <5 m in height, and that, in the high wood extraction rangeland, 79% of the changes in the vertical vegetation subcanopy are gains in the 1-3m height class. The higher the wood extraction pressure on the rangelands, the greater the biomass increases in the low height classes within the subcanopy, likely a strong resprouting response to intensive harvesting. Yet, fuelwood shortages are still occurring, as evidenced by the losses in the tall tree height class in the high extraction rangeland. Loss of large trees and gain in subcanopy shrubs could result in a structurally simple landscape with reduced functional capacity. This research demonstrates that intensive harvesting can, paradoxically, increase biomass and this has implications for the sustainability of ecosystem service provision. The structural implications of biomass increases in communal rangelands could be misinterpreted as woodland recovery in the absence of three-dimensional, subcanopy information.     

大连金普新区碳固持生态服务供需格局时空差异

碳固持服务供需匹配状况对于优化区域生态系统管理、提升生态系统碳汇能力具有重要意义。以大连金普新区为研究区,利用InVEST模型、ArcGIS模型,研究固碳项生态系统服务供需匹配及其变化特征。结果表明：(1)研究期内,2010年至2018年,碳固持服务供给总量呈现出U字型变化趋势;需求总量呈现出持续增长的变化趋势,表现为低等级需求量地区向高等级需求量地区不断转化;碳固持服务供需求不匹配,供需错配现象突出,总体上呈现出供不应求。(2)碳固持服务供需赤字缺口正持续扩大。赤字类型总面积有持续增加的趋势;盈余类型总面积表现为先增后减;供需相对平衡类型总面积不断缩减,朝着低供给高需求方向转变。(3)金普新区碳汇地面积持续缩减,2018年仅为564km²;碳源地面积大量增加,2018年达到1340km²。(4)提出了控制城镇碳需求增长,增加绿地,提高碳供给能力,消减赤字,维持供需能力基本平衡的对策。     

The relationship between numbers of Heterodera schachtii and sugar beet yields on a mineral soil, 1978-81

In a 4-yr field experiment on a mineral soil infested with beet cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii) the relationship between root yield of sugar beet (y) and initial population of H. schachtii (P_i) fitted the equation: y=y min +(y max - y min) Z^Pi-T y min = 7·7 t/ha, y max = 39·4 t/ha, 2 = 0·99938 and T= 0 eggs/100 g soil. From this information and that obtained during a recent survey of 2766 beet fields, the total national root yield loss caused by H. schachtii was estimated as approximately 10 000 t/annum on mineral soils and (assuming a similar yield loss relationship on all soil types) 30 000 t/annum on organic soils. No consistent differences in efficiency of extracting cysts were found between the Fenwick Can and the flotation column. A bioassay technique was as effective as cyst extraction techniques in identifying infested soils.     

Storage,redistribution and net export of dissolved and sediment-bound nutrients,Vejle Fjord,Denmark

Sixty three percent of the nitrogen (total transported 2041 × 10³ kg y^–1) and 17% of the phosphorus (total 159 × 10³ kg y^–1) supplied from terrestrial sources to Vejle Fjord during the period September 1988 to October 1989 is exported to the Kattegat. The sediment nutrient concentrations in the estuary are mainly governed by hydrography and resuspension. The general wind-induced circulation consists of outgoing currents along the southern side and ingoing currents along the northern side of the estuary. The sediments in shallow water on the southern side had higher concentrations of nutrients.Resuspension resulted in large differences between gross sedimentation and net sedimentation, especially in shallow water. Gross sedimentation of total-N in shallow water was 819 × 10³ kg y^–1 compared to a net sedimentation of 19 × 103 kg y^–1. The shallow water areas in the estuary (10% of the area), had a net sedimentation of total-N which was less than 1% of the supply.Wave-induced resuspension only occurs in exposed parts of the deep water area, when wind velocities exceed 10 m s^–1. The concentration of nutrients in the sediments was found to increase with distance from the river (the source) and with increasing depth, as a result of resuspension near the river mouth in the inner part of the estuary. In sheltered parts of the estuary there was no wave-induced resuspension and the net sedimentation equals gross sedimentation. The rate of sedimentation in deep water areas was 12.2 g m^–2y^–1 for total-N and 2.1 gm^–2y^–1 for total-P.     

Benefits and costs of ecological restoration: Rapid assessment of changing ecosystem service values at a U.K. wetland

Restoration of degraded land is recognized by the international community as an important way of enhancing both biodiversity and ecosystem services, but more information is needed about its costs and benefits. In Cambridgeshire, U.K., a long-term initiative to convert drained, intensively farmed arable land to a wetland habitat mosaic is driven by a desire both to prevent biodiversity loss from the nationally important Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve (Wicken Fen NNR) and to increase the provision of ecosystem services. We evaluated the changes in ecosystem service delivery resulting from this land conversion, using a new Toolkit for Ecosystem Service Site-based Assessment (TESSA) to estimate biophysical and monetary values of ecosystem services provided by the restored wetland mosaic compared with the former arable land. Overall results suggest that restoration is associated with a net gain to society as a whole of $199 ha⁻¹y⁻¹, for a one-off investment in restoration of $2320 ha⁻¹. Restoration has led to an estimated loss of arable production of $2040 ha⁻¹y⁻¹, but estimated gains of $671 ha⁻¹y⁻¹ in nature-based recreation, $120 ha⁻¹y⁻¹ from grazing, $48 ha⁻¹y⁻¹ from flood protection, and a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worth an estimated $72 ha⁻¹y⁻¹. Management costs have also declined by an estimated $1325 ha⁻¹y⁻¹. Despite uncertainties associated with all measured values and the conservative assumptions used, we conclude that there was a substantial gain to society as a whole from this land-use conversion. The beneficiaries also changed from local arable farmers under arable production to graziers, countryside users from towns and villages, and the global community, under restoration. We emphasize that the values reported here are not necessarily transferable to other sites.     

The long-term culture of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) in outdoor raceway ponds

The calcareous marine haptophyte algae, the coccolithophorids, are of global environmental significance because of the impact of their blooms on the carbon cycle. The coccolithophorid, Pleurochrysis carterae was grown semi-continuously in paddlewheel-driven outdoor raceway ponds over a period of 13 months in Perth, Western Australia. The mean total dry weight productivity of P. carterae was 0.19 g.L⁻¹.d⁻¹ with cell lipid and CaCO₃ contents of up to 33% and 10% of dry weight respectively, equivalent to an annual total biomass productivity of about 60 t.ha⁻¹.y⁻¹ and 21.9 t.ha⁻¹.y⁻¹ total lipid and 5.5 t.ha⁻¹.y⁻¹ total calcium carbonate production. Throughout the culture period there was little protozoan contamination or contamination by other algae. The pH of the growth medium increased to pH 11 during the day and was found to be a useful variable for monitoring the state of the culture. A comparison of the growth of P. carterae and Dunaliella salina in the raceway ponds showed no significant differences between these two species with regard to areal total dry weight productivity and lipid content.     

Longitudinal Spatial Patterns of Bacterial Production and Respiration in a Large River–Estuary: Implications for Ecosystem Carbon Consumption

Rivers and estuaries transport organic carbon (C) from terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems to the marine environment. During this transit, bacteria actively utilize and transform organic C, but few studies have measured detailed spatial variation in rates of bacterial respiration (BR) and production (BP). We measured BP at 39 stations and BR at 12 stations at monthly intervals along a 200-km reach of the tidal Hudson River. We observed strong repeatable spatial patterns for both BP and BR, with rates declining in the downstream direction. Bacterial Production had much greater dynamic range of spatial variation than BR. We used the detailed seasonal and spatial data on BP and BR to measure the total C demand of bacteria at several scales. We calculated volumetric and areal rates for 12 sections of the Hudson, as well as the total C utilization. Volumetric BR averaged 20 g-C-m^–3 y^–1, but it was highest in the most upstream section at 30 g C m^–3 y^–1. Areal rates averaged over the entire river were 174 g C m^–2 y^–1, but they were 318 g C m^–2 y^–1 in the deepest section of the river, indicating the importance of morphometric variation. Total bacterial C demand increased downriver with increasing total volume. Overall, bacteria in the freshwater section of the river consumed approximately 18–25.5 × 10⁹ g C y^–1, about 20% of the total organic C load.     

基于供需关系的西南喀斯特区生态系统服务空间流动研究

生态系统服务的持续供给是社会和自然可持续发展的基础,人类通过对生态系统服务的消费来满足需求和提高福祉。科学理解生态系统服务从产生、传递到使用的全过程,明确区域生态系统服务供给与需求的平衡状况,对于实现区域可持续发展与提高人类福祉具有重要意义。基于RUSLE、InVEST、CASA等多种模型和方法,量化西南喀斯特区2000-2015年土壤保持服务、产水和碳固定服务的供给量和需求量,探讨供需空间盈余变化特征,确定服务流传输路径和流量。结果表明：（1）研究区土壤保持、产水和碳固定服务供给量和需求量均呈增加趋势,供给量分别增长679.52 t/hm²、2.2×10⁵ m³/km²、72.91 t/km²,需求量分别增加298.6 t/hm²、0.04×10⁵ m³/km²、168.36 t/km²。（2）整个研究区上三种生态系统服务供给尚能满足需求,土壤保持和碳固定服务供需比均呈减少趋势,而产水服务的供需比呈增加趋势。（3）土壤保持高服务流主要分布在云南的黑水河流域、四川的雅砻江流域、广东的北江和东江流域;广西的红水河流域在2000年为产水服务需求区,而到2015年转变为高服务流;碳高服务流主要分布在云南的西南部,方向由西南至东北。     

Emissions of carbon from forestry and land-use change in tropical Asia

The net emissions of carbon from forestry and changes in land use in south and southeast Asia were calculated here with a book-keeping model that used rates of land-use change and associated per hectare changes in vegetation and soil to calculate changes in the amount of carbon held in terrestrial ecosystems and wood products. The total release of carbon to the atmosphere over the period 1850–1995 was 43.5 PgC. The clearing of forests for permanent croplands released 33.5 PgC, about 75% of the total. The reduction of biomass in the remaining forests, as a result of shifting cultivation, logging, fuelwood extraction, and associated regrowth, was responsible for a net loss of 11.5 PgC, and the establishment of plantations withdrew from the atmosphere 1.5 PgC, most of it since 1980. Based on comparisons with other estimates, the uncertainty of this long-term flux is estimated to be within ±30%. Reducing this uncertainty will be difficult because of the difficulty of documenting the biomass of forests in existence >40 years ago. For the 15-y period 1981–1995, annual emissions averaged 1.07 PgC y^–1, about 50% higher than reported for the 1980s in an earlier study. The uncertainty of recent emissions is probably within ± 50% but could be reduced significantly with systematic use of satellite data on changes in forest area. In tropical Asia, the emissions of carbon from land-use change in the 1980s accounted for approximately 75% of the region’s total carbon emissions. Since 1990 rates of deforestation and their associated emissions have declined, while emissions of carbon from combustion of fossil fuels have increased. The net effect has been a reduction in emissions of CO₂ from this region since 1990.     

Kinetic models and process parameters for ultrasound-assisted extraction of water-soluble components and polysaccharides from a medicinal fungus

This study was on the kinetics and process parameters for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of water-soluble components and polysaccharides (PS) from the dry mycelium of a medicinal fungus, Cordyceps sinensis Cs-HK1. Four process variables (factors) were evaluated at different levels, ultrasound intensity (2.44–44.1 W/cm²), temperature (40–70 °C), solid particle size (156.5–750 μm), and solid-to-liquid ratio (1/30–1/70 g/mL). The experimental data of yields versus time in most cases were fitted closely to two empirical kinetic models for solid–liquid extraction, parabolic diffusion equation (y = y_o + y₁t^1/2) and power law (y = βtⁿ) with high correlation coefficients (R²) of 0.95–0.99 for total extract yield, and 0.90–0.96 for PS yield. The PS yield was increased more significantly than the total extract yield with the ultrasound intensity. Reducing the particle size and increasing the extraction temperature led to a higher yield and extraction rate; increasing the solid-to-liquid ratio (or decreasing the liquid volume) increased the PS yield and extraction rate but had little influence on the total extract. Significant correlations were found between extraction rate (dy/dt) and ultrasound power density (P/V), and between extract yield (y) and energy density (Pt/V). The kinetic and process parameters are useful for rational design and efficient operation of UAE processes.     

Multi Year Observations Reveal Variability in Residence of a Tropical Demersal Fish,Lethrinus nebulosus: Implications for Spatial Management

Off the Ningaloo coast of North West Western Australia, Spangled Emperor Lethrinus nebulosus are among the most highly targeted recreational fish species. The Ningaloo Reef Marine Park comprises an area of 4,566 km² of which 34% is protected from fishing by 18 no-take sanctuary zones ranging in size from 0.08–44.8 km². To better understand Spangled Emperor movements and the adequacy of sanctuary zones within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park for this species, 84 Spangled Emperor of a broad spectrum of maturity and sex were tagged using internal acoustic tags in a range of lagoon and reef slope habitats both inside and adjacent to the Mangrove Bay Sanctuary zone. Kernel Utilisation Distribution (KUD) was calculated for 39 resident individuals that were detected for more than 30 days. There was no relationship with fish size and movement or site fidelity. Average home range (95% KUD) for residents was 8.5±0.5 km² compared to average sanctuary zone size of 30 km². Calculated home range was stable over time resulting in resident animals tagged inside the sanctuary zone spending ∼80% of time within the sanctuary boundaries. The number of fish remaining within the array of receivers declined steadily over time and after one year more than 60% of tagged fish had moved outside the sanctuary zone and also beyond the 28 km² array of receivers. Long term monitoring identified the importance of shifting home range and was essential for understanding overall residency within protected areas and also for identifying spawning related movements. This study indicates that despite exhibiting stable and small home ranges over periods of one to two years, more than half the population of spangled emperor move at scales greater than average sanctuary size within the Ningaloo Reef Marine Park.     

青藏高原生态系统服务供需变化及其驱动因素

准确识别生态系统服务供给与需求的空间特征和空间匹配,确定影响供需关系的因素,对指导区域生态系统管理和恢复具有重要意义。采用修正通用土壤流失方程（RUSLE）、生态系统服务和权衡综合评估模型（InVEST）和卡内基-艾姆斯-斯坦福模型（CASA）等多种模型方法探讨青藏高原土壤保持、产水和碳固定服务的供给与需求的时空特征,并结合冗余分析,进一步识别青藏高原生态系统服务供给、需求与供需比的影响因素。结果表明：（1）2000-2018年青藏高原土壤保持、产水和碳固定服务的供给量,以及产水和碳固定服务的需求量均呈现增加趋势,供给量分别增加30.57t、63.61×10⁴m³、33.81t,需求量分别增加153.42m³和5.09t,而土壤保持服务需求量呈减少趋势,减少16.39t。（2）青藏高原各项生态系统服务供需匹配状况不同,碳固定服务供需比呈下降趋势,产水服务供需比呈上升趋势,土壤保持服务供需比波动变化,总体呈上升趋势,局部呈下降趋势。（3）各项生态系统服务供需关系均以低低型空间匹配为主。（4）降水和坡度是影响生态系统服务供给的主要因素,生态系统服务需求主要受人口密度和国内生产总值的影响,降水和温度是影响生态系统服务供需比的关键因素。研究评估青藏高原生态系统服务供给与需求之间的关系,以及明确供需关系的空间显性驱动力,为区域的生态系统综合管理提供依据。     

Experimental Manipulation of Forest Structure: Near-Term Effects on Gap and Stand Scale C Dynamics

Canopy gaps and coarse woody debris are two forest structural features that are more abundant in old-growth forests than in second-growth, even-aged stands. These features directly influence the carbon balance of the ecosystem, yet few studies have quantified their interactive effects. We experimentally manipulated the forest structure of a second-growth northern hardwood forest in north-central Wisconsin (USA) and measured the shift of C between pools of the ecosystem components. Here, we question the longevity of the changes to the aboveground pools and address their implications for total ecosystem C (TEC) and net ecosystem production (NEP) at both the gap and stand scale. At the scale of the gap, the harvest and removal of trees significantly reduced NEP (?3.2 to ?3.5 Mg C ha^?1 for gaps vs 2.2 to 2.5 Mg C ha^?1 for reference conditions), but did not alter heterotrophic respiration. The addition of woody debris without harvest significantly increased heterotrophic respiration, decreasing soil C storage of the gap area (?0.5 to ?1.1 Mg C ha^?1). The combined treatment of gap creation and woody debris addition made the gap area a significant C source to the atmosphere for the 3 years of the study (?4.9 to ?5.1 Mg C ha^?1). We also estimated how these structural features would affect C dynamics at a broader scale. The conversion of 10% of the stand canopy to gap conditions caused only a brief decrease in the stand NEP with the C balance returning to reference conditions by the third year following tree harvest. The woody debris additions caused an increase in both TEC and heterotrophic respiration. When combined the addition of canopy gaps and woody debris caused plots to initially become significant C sources, relative to undisturbed locations that were consistently accumulating C, with an annual NEP ranging from 2.1 to 2.8 Mg C ha^?1 y^?1. Understanding the effects of these structural features on forest C dynamics is highly relevant as the maturing forests of the region transition to more structurally complex forests and the demand for managing ecosystems for long-term C sequestration increases.     

基于生态供需视角的生态安全格局构建与优化——以长三角地区为例

生态安全格局构建是保障区域生态安全与提升人类福祉的基本途径之一。以长三角地区为案例区,通过生境质量评估、生态系统服务重要性评价和景观连通性分析识别区域生态源地,在利用生态系统服务价值化方法辨别高生态需求区的基础上,运用最小累积阻力模型提取源地与高需求地之间的生态廊道,以构建并优化区域生态安全格局。研究结果表明:长三角地区生态源地总面积64911km~2,占全区的32.51%,主要分布于皖南和浙中;区域中高与较高生态需求斑块总面积占全区46.60%,主要位于上海市和江苏省;区域生态廊道总长度11188.85km,源间廊道主要分布于长江沿岸和区域南部,需求廊道主要位于区域东中北部。研究首次将生态需求评价纳入生态廊道建设框架,为生态安全格局构建提供新思路,结果可为生态空间保护规划提供参考。     

Optimal investment for enhancing social concern about biodiversity conservation: A dynamic approach

To maintain biodiversity conservation areas, we need to invest in activities, such as monitoring the condition of the ecosystem, preventing illegal exploitation, and removing harmful alien species. These require a constant supply of resources, the level of which is determined by the concern of the society about biodiversity conservation. In this paper, we study the optimal fraction of the resources to invest in activities for enhancing the social concern y(t) by environmental education, museum displays, publications, and media exposure. We search for the strategy that maximizes the time-integral of the quality of the conservation area x(t) with temporal discounting. Analyses based on dynamic programming and Pontryagin’s maximum principle show that the optimal control consists of two phases: (1) in the first phase, the social concern level approaches to the final optimal value y^∗, (2) in the second phase, resources are allocated to both activities, and the social concern level is kept constant y(t)=y^∗. If the social concern starts from a low initial level, the optimal path includes a period in which the quality of the conservation area declines temporarily, because all the resources are invested to enhance the social concern. When the support rate increases with the quality of the conservation area itself x(t) as well as with the level of social concern y(t), both variables may increase simultaneously in the second phase. We discuss the implication of the results to good management of biodiversity conservation areas.