Warts and All

A closer examination of the ways archaeological knowledge is spoken about and represented locally provides significant insights into social divisions and power struggles within Peru. In an account of the ambivalent relations between archaeologists and local experts in the prehispanic past, this article considers how the authority that enables the construction and maintenance of sociopolitical models (such as the ‘nation’) is itself constructed, not just from above, but also at the local level. The relationship between power and authority grants legitimacy to historical discourses justifying sociopolitical inequality and reinforces the centralized power structure of the Peruvian state. The article discusses the implications of these local perceptions for archaeology, both as a discipline practiced within the local setting, and as a category through which the Peruvian government expresses tropes of a unified modern identity.     

Contesting Patrimony: Cusco's Mystical Tourist Industry and the Politics of Incanismo

The Peruvian state's neoliberal policies include its mission to modernize Peru through international tourism and foreign investment, and tourism promoters and politicians increasingly invoke Andean mysticism and Inca patrimony (or incanismo) as a marketing strategy. This paper argues that Cusqueño citizens invoke the same representations, with competing claims of authenticity and authority, as they construct their own versions of Incanist identification in populist movements against the state and its enforcement of the global neoliberal order, as well as in their attempts to survive in the tourist economy. In Peru, criticism of the tourist industry is often grounded in incanismo and seems to take aim at the neoliberal order. However, closer analysis reveals a more complicated set of relationships between resistance and liberalism. Friction emerges not because cultural identity is being commodified or inequalities persist, but because local desires for access to the market are frustrated by state and municipal agencies.     

Bird diversity, birdwatching tourism and conservation in Peru: a geographic analysis

In the face of the continuing global biodiversity loss, it is important not only to assess the need for conservation, through e.g. gap analyses, but also to seek practical solutions for protecting biodiversity. Environmentally and socially sustainable tourism can be one such solution. We present a method to spatially link data on conservation needs and tourism-based economic opportunities, using bird-related tourism in Peru as an example. Our analysis highlighted areas in Peru where potential for such projects could be particularly high. Several areas within the central and northern Andean regions, as well as within the lowland Amazonian regions of Madre de Dios and Loreto emerge as promising for this type of activity. Mechanisms to implement conservation in these areas include e.g. conservation and ecotourism concessions, private conservation areas, and conservation easements. Some of these mechanisms also offer opportunities for local communities seeking to secure their traditional land ownership and use rights. (Spanish language abstract, Abstract S1).     

Investigating regional mobility in the southern hinterland of the Wari Empire: biogeochemistry at the site of Beringa, Peru

Empires have transformed political, social, and environmental landscapes in the past and present. Although much research on archaeological empires focuses on large-scale imperial processes, we use biogeochemistry and bioarchaeology to investigate how imperialism may have reshaped regional political organization and regional migration patterns in the Wari Empire of the Andean Middle Horizon (ca. AD 600-1000). Radiogenic strontium isotope analysis of human remains from the site of Beringa in the Majes Valley of southern Peru identified the geographic origins of individuals impacted by the Wari Empire. At Beringa, the combined archaeological human enamel and bone values range from (87)Sr/(86)Sr = 0.70802 - 0.70960, with a mean (87)Sr/(86)Sr = 0.70842 ± 0.00027 (1σ, n = 52). These data are consistent with radiogenic strontium isotope data from the local fauna in the Majes Valley and imply that most individuals were local inhabitants, rather than migrants from the Wari heartland or some other locale. There were two outliers at Beringa, and these "non-local" individuals may have derived from other parts of the South Central Andes. This is consistent with our understanding of expansive trade networks and population movement in the Andean Middle Horizon, likely influenced by the policies of the Wari Empire. Although not a Wari colony, the incorporation of small sites like Beringa into the vast social and political networks of the Middle Horizon resulted in small numbers of migrants at Beringa.     

Earthquakes as the Quintessential SCE: Methodology and Societal Resilience

This paper focuses on earthquakes as the most frequent type of SCE (short-term cataclysmic event) with signatures in the three main sources used to reconstruct the premodern environment, namely historical records, archaeological findings, and paleoclimate proxies. We examine methodological issues in archaeoseismology (including earthquake catalogs, statistics, and the measurement of societal resilience to earthquakes in premodern societies in the eastern Mediterranean), before investigating societal earthquake response in the region. The behavior of different groups within these societies, such as the central government or local elites, is assessed in this context. The regenerative or adaptive aspects of seismic events are demonstrated with consideration of their archaeological footprints. This paper concludes that complex societies in the Eastern Mediterranean during the past two millennia were largely resilient to earthquakes at the state-level, though local effects on the aspect and character of urban settlement could be more pronounced.     

Negotiating Community and Landscape in the Peruvian Andes: A Transconquest View

This article explores how constructs of "community" and "landscape" mediate power relations between households and colonial states. I analyze archaeological and documentary data in a common spatial framework to reconstruct the local-scale negotiation of community and land-use organization during successive colonial occupations by the Inka and Spanish states in the Colca Valley of southern highland Peru. Using GIS-based analytical tools, I present a detailed reconstruction of the land-tenure patterns of Andean corporate descent groups ( ayllus ) registered in colonial visitas from the heartland of the Collagua Province. I then compare these land-tenure patterns to archaeological settlement patterns from the Inka occupation (C.E. 1450–C.E. 1532) and subsequent early Colonial Period occupation up to the forced resettlement of the local populace into compact, European-style reducción villages in the 1570s. This analysis reveals how both Inka and Spanish colonialist projects for reordering and rationalizing local community and land-use organization were met by local understandings and interests that emerged from patterns of land tenure, residence, and the features of the built environment.     

Dental relatedness corresponding to mortuary patterning at Huaca Loro, Peru

Within and between tombs at the 1,000-year-old site of Huaca Loro on north coastal Peru, interment characteristics vary to an intriguing degree. Following and elaborating upon prior intracemetery studies, biological relatedness among associated burial groupings was assessed using 23 dental characters (assuming familial allele segregation) for 29 individuals. Biological patterning was based on multivariate distance between individuals using all traits, rather than the previously widespread reliance upon univariate comparison of each trait separately within samples. This multivariate approach did seem more informative. Statistically significant variation of biological similarities and dissimilarities corresponded to spatial groupings and also to various specific archaeological indications of the cohesiveness, or lack thereof, of interment pattern. The partition of biological distances among tombs at Huaca Loro supports the archaeological evidence that the tombs represent a planned elite cemetery.     

South African Museums and the Creation of a New National Identity

Museums are important sites of national cultural production, collective memory making, and the construction of national narratives. Contemporary South Africa is a particularly interesting place to study these processes. With the demise of apartheid, South Africa faces the difficult challenge of creating a new national identity that incorporates an examination of past oppression yet leaves the way open for building a national identity that incorporates all its diverse groups. The museums reviewed below, the Robben Island Prison Museum, the District Six Museum in Capetown, and the Kwa Muhle local history museum in Durban all make important contributions to this process.     

Influences of habitat features and human disturbance on use of breeding sites by a declining population of southern fur seals (Arctocephalus australis)

Southern fur seals Arctocephalus australis in Peru have declined gradually over the past decade, and declined dramatically (72%) as a result of low food availability during the severe El Niño in 1997–98. In 1999, seals abandoned some historically important breeding sites. This is particularly alarming because new sites were not colonized. Our objective was to examine how habitat features and human disturbance influenced whether sites were currently used, abandoned or apparently not used in the past by fur seals for breeding. Data were collected on 14 variables at 70 potential breeding sites at three guano reserves in Peru. Discriminant analysis revealed significant multivariate differences among sites currently used for breeding, abandoned sites and unused sites ( F =5.97, P <0.00001), and the model classified 74% of sites correctly. Currently used sites were less likely to have human disturbance and more likely to have offshore islands, stacked rocks, tide pools and abundant shade. Separate discriminant analyses for each reserve produced similar results. Habitat associated with thermoregulation (e.g. shade or pools) may be more important to fur seals in Peru, which breed at lower latitudes and are at greater risk of overheating on land than other populations. Habitat with minimized human access may be especially important to seals in small populations in which individuals may perceive themselves as more vulnerable because of decreased vigilance and dilution effects. Seals in our study selected breeding habitat with stacked rocks, which create shade and tide pools for thermoregulation and make human access difficult; but pups might suffer higher mortality in this habitat. We hypothesize that fur seals in Peru may exhibit an Allee effect, whereby suitability of habitat varies with population abundance.     

Microsatellite genotyping of cultivars of the Holy Land grapevine, Vitis vinifera ssp. sativa (Vitaceae)

Analysis of DNA microsatellites was used to assign genomic identity to the local grapevines ( Vitis vinifera ssp. sativa ) of the Holy Land. Most of the 24 analysed cultivars were sampled from the Indigenous Fruit Trees Rescue Gardens (Sataf collection) near Jerusalem. To determine the genotype identity of these cultivars, primers of the following microsatellites were used: VrZAG47, VrZAG62, VrZAG79, VVS2, VVMD5 and VVMD7. The amplicon sizes of the various microsatellites were measured by genotyping. The genetic similarity between cultivars within the local collection was computed and presented as a dendrogram. Three vines showed identical allele sizes for all six microsatellites. Two of these cultivars are likely to be genetically identical, whereas one, although potentially closely related, showed phenotypic difference at least in the colour of the berries. In comparing the allelic frequencies of the various microsatellite sizes with those of European cultivars (available in accessible web databases), it was found that the cultivar group most similar to the Holy Land grapevines is the Greek vine population. Historical and archaeological information indicates that the Sataf collection may represent only part of the expected diversity of local vines. It is thus possible that many of the missing vines still occur as unattended feral plants.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 513–521.     

New evidence for ancient cultivation ofCanna edulis in Peru

Preserved rhizomes ofCanna edulis from 5 archaeological sites in the Casma Valley of Peru are illustrated and described. These were identified by their extant surface features and by their starch grains, which are different from those of any other known flowering plant species. Based on radiocarbon assays, these specimens range in date from 2250–295 B.C. Materials used for comparative purposes in this study included a collection of edible canna from the Peruvian archaeological site of Pachacamac and a modern-day specimen. A theory on the place of origin and time of domestication of this species is given in the conclusions of this paper.     

Les monuments funéraires en trou de serrure de l’Edjereh et de l’Amadror (Ahaggar,Algérie)

In this work, we will try to illuminate that in the Ahaggar region (Algeria) funerary monuments are very abundant with a various architecture. A series of archaeological field explorations has made it possible to gather the necessary observations and measurements. The most spectacular architecture is the so-called “keyhole architecture”, also identified as “corridor and enclosure”, which has been recognised in the central Ahaggar, with the exception of the Téfedest area, which has not yet produced any examples. The here is to present some keyhole monuments recognised during our various missions in the Edjereh and Amadror regions, some of which have been the subject of archaeological excavations in the past.     

Pre‐Columbian population dynamics in coastal southern Peru: A diachronic investigation of mtDNA patterns in the Palpa region by ancient DNA analysis

Alternative models have been proposed to explain the formation and decline of the south Peruvian Nasca culture, ranging from migration or invasion to autochthonous development and ecological crisis. To reveal to what extent population dynamic processes accounted for cultural development in the Nasca mainland, or were influenced by them, we analyzed ancient mitochondrial DNA of 218 individuals, originating from chronologically successive archaeological sites in the Palpa region, the Paracas Peninsula, and the Andean highlands in southern Peru. The sampling strategy allowed a diachronic analysis in a time frame from approximately 800 BC to 800 AD. Mitochondrial coding region polymorphisms were successfully analyzed and replicated for 130 individuals and control region sequences (np 16021–16408) for 104 individuals to determine Native American mitochondrial DNA haplogroups and haplotypes. The results were compared with ancient and contemporary Peruvian populations to reveal genetic relations of the archaeological samples. Frequency data and statistics show clear proximity of the Nasca populations to the populations of the preceding Paracas culture from Palpa and the Peninsula, and suggest, along with archaeological data, that the Nasca culture developed autochthonously in the Rio Grande drainage. Furthermore, the influence of changes in socioeconomic complexity in the Palpa area on the genetic diversity of the local population could be observed. In all, a strong genetic affinity between pre‐Columbian coastal populations from southern Peru could be determined, together with a significant differentiation from ancient highland and all present‐day Peruvian reference populations, best shown in the differential distribution of mitochondrial haplogroups. Am J Phys Anthropol 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Archaeological potato tuber remains from the casma valley of peru

A collection of 21 preserved tubers of the potato from 4 archaeological sites situated in the Casma Valley of Peru is illustrated and described. The collections from these sites date from the Preceramic Period (2000 B.C.) to the Initial Ceramic Period (1200 B.C.). Identification of the tuber remains was undertaken through a stud) of their starch grains. Comparative material used for this purpose included other archaeological collections of tuber remains from the sites of Chilca and Pachacamac, as well as the fresh and dried tubers of modern-day wild and cultivated potato species.     

Primitivist medicine and capitalist anxieties in ayahuasca tourism Peru

Analysing healing practices at an ayahuasca tourism centre in Peru, this article illustrates how Shipibo practices of curing and sorcery have adapted to the demands of international clients searching for primitivist healing experiences. At the core of this adaption is the thorny issue of occult power and its relation to capital accumulation. Sorcery here does not serve clients but is manifest among healers working to capitalize on the guests’ primitivist rejections of modern life while operating in environments of economic scarcity and ambient poverty. Ayahuasca tourists do not request and generally do not believe in sorcery, but their very presence generates and negates the local moral economy of sorcery in novel ways. The article explores a paradoxical aspect of ayahuasca tourism wherein guests purge similar anxious desires for capital accumulation that healers achieve when curing them.     

Paleomobility in the Tiwanaku Diaspora: Biogeochemical analyses at Rio Muerto,Moquegua, Peru

Paleomobility has been a key element in the study of the expansion of ancient states and empires, including the Tiwanaku polity of the South Central Andes (AD 500–1000). We present radiogenic strontium and oxygen isotope data from human burials from three cemeteries in the Tiwanaku‐affiliated Middle Horizon archaeological site complex of Rio Muerto in the Moquegua Valley of southern Peru. At Rio Muerto, archaeological human enamel and bone values range from ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70657–0.72018, with a mean of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr = 0.70804 ± 0.00207 (1σ, n = 55). For the subset of samples analyzed for oxygen isotope values (n = 48), the data ranges from δ¹⁸O_{carbonate(VSMOW)} = +18.1 to +27.0‰. When contextualized with other lines of archaeological evidence, we interpret these data as evidence for an archaeological population in which the majority of individuals had “local” origins, and were likely second‐generation, or more, immigrants from the Tiwanaku heartland in the altiplano. Based on detailed life history data, we argue a smaller number of individuals came at different ages from various regions within the Tiwanaku polity. We consider whether these individuals with isotopic values consistent with “nonlocal” geographic origins could represent first‐generation migrants, marriage exchange partners, or occupationally mobile herders, traders or other travelers. By combining isotopic life history studies with mortuary treatment data, we use a person‐centered migration history approach to state integration and expansion. Isotopic analyses of paleomobility at the Rio Muerto site complex contribute to the role of diversity in ancient states by demonstrating the range of geographic origins rather than simply colonists from the Lake Titicaca Basin. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:405–421, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Memory Pieces and Footprints: Multivocality and the Meanings of Ancient Times and Ancestral Places among the Zuni and Hopi

The notion of the "contested past" has grown to be an important topic in anthropological research in recent decades, linking such themes as nationalism, identity, museology, tourism, and war. In North America, these discussions have largely centered on archaeology's shifting relationship with native peoples. As scholars give new attention to how research methodologies and representation of cultural histories affect indigenous peoples, it is critical to understand the unique ways in which Native Americans view their past. Contemporary Zuni and Hopi interpretations of ancestral landscapes in the San Pedro Valley of Arizona are used to explore how indigenous worldviews imbue ancient places with deep cultural and individual meanings. This research, based on a three-year collaborative ethnohistory project, argues for resolution to the "contested past" by incorporating a perspective of multivocality, which will enable the creation of alternative histories that do not eschew scientific principles while respecting native values of history.     

Emissions from Pre-Hispanic Metallurgy in the South American Atmosphere

Metallurgical activities have been undertaken in northern South America (NSA) for millennia. However, it is still unknown how far atmospheric emissions from these activities have been transported. Since the timing of metallurgical activities is currently estimated from scarce archaeological discoveries, the availability of reliable and continuous records to refine the timing of past metal deposition in South America is essential, as it provides an alternative to discontinuous archives, as well as evidence for global trace metal transport. We show in a peat record from Tierra del Fuego that anthropogenic metals likely have been emitted into the atmosphere and transported from NSA to southern South America (SSA) over the last 4200 yrs. These findings are supported by modern time back-trajectories from NSA to SSA. We further show that apparent anthropogenic Cu and Sb emissions predate any archaeological evidence for metallurgical activities. Lead and Sn were also emitted into the atmosphere as by-products of Inca and Spanish metallurgy, whereas local coal-gold rushes and the industrial revolution contributed to local contamination. We suggest that the onset of pre-Hispanic metallurgical activities is earlier than previously reported from archaeological records and that atmospheric emissions of metals were transported from NSA to SSA.     

Dimensions of health and social structure in the early intermediate period cemetery at Villa El Salvador, Peru

This paper examines relationships between the social structure of a community and the health of its members, based on analysis of human skeletal remains (N = 64) from Villa El Salvador XII (100 BC-AD 100), a prehistoric cemetery located in the lower Lurín Valley, Peru. The ambiguity of social status as conventionally inferred from archaeological context is among the principal complicating factors in such an inquiry. We use multidimensional scaling of skeletal markers to identify the presence of patterned health-based heterogeneity in our sample, without making a priori assumptions about underlying social structure at Villa El Salvador. This procedure situates every skeleton relative to all others in the sample on the basis of multiple health markers, eliciting health groups. Once recognized, the relevance of those groups to social structure can be evaluated by comparison with a broad range of presumptive archaeological status indicators. We test the hypothesis that the distribution of stress indicators in human skeletons covaries with archaeological indicators of social differentiation. Based on multivariate analysis of skeletal indicators, we conclude that the cemetery at Villa El Salvador was utilized by two social groups with different geographic affinities: one of local coastal origin, and the other probably from the upper Lurín Valley or adjacent higher altitudes. These groups differ in skeletal characteristics related to childhood health, probably reflecting systematic contrasts in the growth environments of the studied individuals. This same division is independently supported by the distribution of cranial deformation, a possible marker of ethnicity. We also document some inequality in the distribution of labor among male individuals, as reflected by the relative advancement of degenerative joint disease, and congruent with differences in the number and quality of associated funerary offerings.     

The Poverty of Tourism under Mobilizational Developmentalism in China

ABSTRACT

In China tourism has been promoted not only as a passport to development in general, but also as an effective instrument to help the poor, and to regulate the serious regional disparity between the coastal and inland areas. In practice, tourism has been adopted popularly by local state elites as an important local economic development strategy, especially in poverty-stricken areas. This article studies the pattern of tourism development in China through the historically specific institutional dynamics of mobilizational developmentalism, which is generated from a blending of mobilizational bureaucracy with developmentalism. With the analytical framework of mobilization developmentalism, this article studies a case of “industrialization of tourism” in which the Miao New Year was promoted by a nationally designated poor county as a tourism-led development project. On one hand, this article analyzes how local bureaucrats at various levels of the government responded to the political mobilization of a tourism-led development project. On the other hand, this study explores how local communities respond to tourism projects mobilized from above. This article argues that mobilizational developmentalism shapes a specific set of political, economic and cultural processes among local state elites, tourist operators, and local communities in developing tourism in China.