Clonal Diversity in Differently-Aged Populations of the Pseudo-Annual Clonal Plant Circaea lutetiana L.

Abstract: In many clonal plant species seedling recruitment is restricted to short colonization episodes early in the development of the population, and clonal diversity (i.e., genet diversity) in the population is expected to decrease with increasing population age. In established populations of the pseudo-annual Circaea lutetiana seedling recruitment has previously not been observed. Therefore, we expected established populations to have low clonal diversities. We analysed number and frequency of genets and spatial distribution of genets in six differently-aged C. lutetiana populations with the use of four informative RAPD primers. We found relatively low clonal diversities in young populations but very high clonal diversities in established populations. Therefore, the hypothesis was rejected that seedling recruitment does not occur in established populations. Moreover, we did not find large genet size asymmetries in established populations. Genet size differences can be caused by stochastic processes or by fitness related traits, such as differences in vegetative reproduction. Because vegetative propagation of ramets is dependent on ramet size, and the number of ramets and the size of each ramet determine genet size, we expected that large genets produced, on average, large ramets. However, this was not the case, suggesting that stochastic processes caused genet size differences. Genet size may also be bounded if spatial distribution of genets is affected by micro-habitat differences. For this we expected to find a clumped spatial distribution of ramets of the same genet. However, ramets of large genets were always found intermingled with ramets belonging to other genets.     

Effect of Seed Source, Topsoil Removal, and Plant Neighbor Removal on Restoring California Coastal Prairies

Grasslands are hot spots of biodiversity but are now widely threatened by changes in patterns of disturbances, such as grazing and fire regimes, exotic species invasions, and cultivation. The goal of this experiment was to find the most appropriate combination of treatments to reintroduce Danthonia californica, a formerly dominant perennial bunchgrass, into degraded California coastal prairies. Danthonia californica was sown from seed and transplanted at two sites and at two grazing intensities (grazed/ungrazed) in a multifactorial experiment testing the effects of (1) local versus nonlocal seed sources; (2) topsoil removal; and (3) reduction of plant neighbors. Seed emergence was very low, suggesting that transplanting may be a better option to reintroduce D. californica. Although transplants grown from nonlocal seeds survived better initially at both sites, transplants from local seeds had higher survival after 1.5 year at one site. This suggests that short‐term plant establishment studies may be misleading. Topsoil removal greatly enhanced transplant survival, and neighbor removal primarily increased transplant growth. Our results suggest that removing topsoil prior to transplanting seedlings grown from local seeds is the most promising method to reintroduce D. californica. However, the benefits of removing topsoil to provide safe sites for plant establishment should be weighed carefully against potential negative effects on the native seed bank and microbial communities on a site‐specific basis .     

Shrubland Restoration Following Woody Alien Invasion and Mining: Effects of Topsoil Depth, Seed Source, and Fertilizer Addition

Invasion by woody alien plants, construction, and mining operations are among the major disturbances degrading vegetation in the Cape Floristic Kingdom, South Africa. The aim of this study was to assess whether native fynbos shrubland vegetation could be restored following dense alien invasion and disturbance by mining. An area supporting dense alien trees was cleared and topsoil was stripped and stockpiled to simulate mining disturbance. A field trial investigated the effects of topsoil depth, seed mix application, and fertilizer on native species recruitment and vegetation development over a three‐year period. Soil‐stored seed banks contributed 60% of the species recruited, indicating that areas invaded for three decades have good restoration potential. The addition of a fynbos seed mix, which included serotinous overstory species, improved both the richness and structural composition of the vegetation. Most species sown in untopsoiled plots established, but survival and growth was low compared to topsoil plots. Poor growth in combination with a lack of soil seed bank species, indicate that restoring a diverse and functional cover of indigenous vegetation on subsoil is not possible in the short‐term. Soil amelioration is required to improve rooting conditions and initiate ecosystem processes. Shallow and deep topsoil treatments yielded high plant density, richness, and projected canopy cover, but canopy cover was higher in deep topsoil plots throughout the trial. Fertilizer addition increased canopy cover in untopsoiled and shallow topsoil plots via an increase in alien annual species. Fertilizer addition ultimately may lead to increased native vegetation cover in untopsoiled areas, but as it increased proteoid mortality on deep topsoil plots, it is not recommended for sites where topsoil is available. A species‐rich and structurally representative fynbos community may be restored on topsoiled areas provided that the native disturbance regime is simulated and seeds of major structural guilds not present in the soil seed bank are included in the seed mix.     

Local adaptation: Mechanical fit between floral ecotypes of Nerine humilis (Amaryllidaceae) and pollinator communities

Geographic variation in floral morphology is often assumed to reflect geographic variation in pollinator communities and associated divergence in selective pressures. We studied populations of Nerine humilis (Amaryllidaceae) to assess whether geographic variation in floral form is the result of local adaptation to different pollinator communities. We first tested for associations between floral traits and visitor communities, and found that populations with similar floral morphologies were visited by similar insect communities. Mean style length in each population was also closely associated with the mean body length of the local visitor community. A reciprocal translocation experiment demonstrated that native phenotypes set more seed than translocated phenotypes. Single visitation experiments showed that native flowers received more pollen, and set more seed per visit, than introduced phenotypes in both populations. This suggests that the effectiveness of pollinator visits is determined by the degree of mechanical fit between flowers and visitors. We provide strong evidence that the observed among‐population variation in floral traits is an adaptive response to geographic variation in the pollinator community.     

Evolutionary potential in the Alpine: trait heritabilities and performance variation of the dwarf willow Salix herbacea from different elevations and microhabitats

Alpine ecosystems are seriously threatened by climate change. One of the key mechanisms by which plants can adapt to changing environmental conditions is through evolutionary change. However, we still know little about the evolutionary potential in wild populations of long‐lived alpine plants. Here, we investigated heritabilities of phenological traits, leaf size, and performance traits in natural populations of the long‐lived alpine dwarf shrub Salix herbacea using relatedness estimates inferred from SSR (Simple Sequence Repeat) markers. Salix herbacea occurs in early‐ and late‐snowmelt microhabitats (ridges and snowbeds), and we assessed how performance consequences of phenological traits and leaf size differ between these microhabitats in order to infer potential for evolutionary responses. Salix herbacea showed low, but significant, heritabilities of leaf size, clonal and sexual reproduction, and moderate heritabilities of phenological traits. In both microhabitats, we found that larger leaves, longer intervals between snowmelt and leaf expansion, and longer GDD (growing‐degree days) until leaf expansion resulted in a stronger increase in the number of stems (clonal reproduction). In snowbeds, clonal reproduction increased with a shorter GDD until flowering, while the opposite was found on ridges. Furthermore, the proportion of flowering stems increased with GDD until flowering in both microhabitats. Our results suggest that the presence of significant heritable variation in morphology and phenology might help S. herbacea to adapt to changing environmental conditions. However, it remains to be seen if the rate of such an evolutionary response can keep pace with the rapid rate of climate change.     

Glycerolipid analysis during desiccation and recovery of the resurrection plant Xerophyta humilis (Bak) Dur and Schinz

Xerophyta humilis is a poikilochlorophyllous monocot resurrection plant used as a model to study vegetative desiccation tolerance. Dehydration imposes tension and ultimate loss of integrity of membranes in desiccation sensitive species. We investigated the predominant molecular species of glycerolipids present in root and leaf tissues, using multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry, and then analysed changes therein during dehydration and subsequent rehydration of whole plants. The presence of fatty acids with long carbon chains and with odd numbers of carbons were detected and confirmed by gas chromatography. Dehydration of both leaves and roots resulted in an increase in species containing polyunsaturated fatty acids and a decrease in disaturated species. Upon rehydration, lipid saturation was reversed, with this being initiated immediately upon watering in roots but only 12–24 hr later in leaves. Relative levels of species with short‐chained odd‐numbered saturated fatty acids decreased during dehydration and increased during rehydration, whereas the reverse trend was observed for long‐chained fatty acids. X. humilis has a unique lipid composition, this report being one of the few to demonstrate the presence of odd‐numbered fatty acids in plant phosphoglycerolipids.     

濒危植物梵净山冷杉的球果与种子性状研究北大核心CSCD

梵净山冷杉(Abies fanjingshanensis)为国家一级保护濒危植物。为了揭示梵净山冷杉球果发育和成熟过程的性状特征,以确定成熟球果的适宜采种期。该研究对梵净山冷杉自然生长区内成年结实母树的球果进行跟踪观测和定期采集,通过物理解剖和形态学参数测定,比较分析不同采种期梵净山冷杉的球果、种鳞和种子的性状差异。结果显示:(1)梵净山冷杉的球果每年7月中旬开始形成,10月中旬开始成熟,发育早期至发育后期球果的长度和宽度显著增加,发育后期至成熟期形态和颜色均无明显变化。(2)成熟球果平均长、宽、鲜重、干重和相对含水量分别为7.18 cm、3.84 cm、36.98 g、20.33 g和45.06%。(3)成熟球果的平均种鳞层数为30.76层,种鳞总数为250.67片,平均出种量436.67粒,平均种子饱满率82.49%。(4)成熟球果基部、中部、上部的种子性状不同,且球果中部的种子性状参数最大,饱满率最高,种子平均长、宽、厚分别为9.14、2.30、2.37 mm,千粒重11.44 g。研究表明,梵净山冷杉的球果从形成至成熟过程约3个月,成熟球果的最佳采种时间为10月下旬,发育后期和成熟球果的形态和颜色差异不明显,不能以颜色和形态作为球果成熟的判定依据;种鳞与球果的发育和成熟同步,球果中部的种鳞能够完全发育,且形状参数最大,孕育的种子最饱满;梵净山冷杉成熟球果出种量大、饱满率高,但是种子小、重量轻。     

Restoring Rainforest Fragments: Survival of Mixed-Native Species Seedlings under Contrasting Site Conditions in the Western Ghats, India

Historical fragmentation and a current annual deforestation rate of 1.2% in the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot have resulted in a human-dominated landscape of plantations, agriculture, and developed areas, with embedded rainforest fragments that form biodiversity refuges and animal corridors. On private lands in the Anamalai hills, India, we established restoration sites within three rainforest fragments (5, 19, and 100 ha) representing varying levels of degradation such as open meadow, highly degraded sites with dense Lantana camara invasion, abandoned exotic tree plantations ( Eucalyptus grandis and Maesopsis eminii ), and sites with mixed-native and exotic tree canopy. Between 2000 and 2004, we planted annually during the southwest monsoon 7,538 nursery-raised seedlings of around 127 species in nine sites (0.15–1.0 ha). Seedlings monitored at 6-monthly intervals showed higher mortality over the dry season than the wet season and survival rates over a 2-year period of between 34.4 and 90.3% under different site conditions. Seedling survival was higher in sites with complete weed removal as against partial removal along planting lines and higher in open meadow and under shade than in sites that earlier had dense weed invasion. Of 44 species examined, survival across sites after 24 months for a majority of species (27 species, 61.4%) was higher than 50%. Retaining regenerating native species during weed clearing operations was crucial for rapid reestablishment of a first layer of canopy to shade out weeds and enhance survival of shade-tolerant rainforest seedlings.     

Local Adaptation and the Effects of Grazing on the Performance of Nassella pulchra: Implications for Seed Sourcing in Restoration

The use of local seed sources for revegetation is accepted practice to reduce the potential that propagules will be poorly adapted to site conditions. However, data are often lacking to determine the distance within which seed sources represent local genotypes. Short‐term reciprocal transplant studies represent a class of tools to detect local adaptation of target species. We conducted a reciprocal transplant of Nassella pulchra between two central California locations to test for adaptation to local environmental conditions over a 3‐year period. Experimental plots at one location were split between grazed and ungrazed sites to evaluate the potential influence of livestock grazing on the detection or magnitude of local adaptation. During each year of the study, evidence of a home‐site advantage depended on the location, traits studied, and population. At the end of the 3‐year study period, however, we detected consistent evidence of a home‐site advantage for seedling biomass among grazed sites at one location and ungrazed plots at the other location. In effect, local adaptation was only apparent in the final year of the study. Short‐term reciprocal transplant studies are an effective tool to guide the selection of seed sources most likely to germinate and to become established at a restoration site, but such studies cannot rule out local adaptation, which may not be immediately detectable.     

Population genetics of an invasive species,Heracleum mantegazzianum: implications for the role of life history,demographics and independent introductions

The population genetic structure of an invasive, nonindigenous riparian weed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) in the northeast of England was investigated using microsatellite DNA markers. Data were used to assess the size and frequency of introductions into three catchments and the subsequent spread. We sampled 13 populations, including a remote population (Perivale, London) for comparison. Five loci were screened and considerable variation was found. Results revealed greater overall variation between populations from different catchments than those in the same catchment, and suggested the generation of population structure in the relatively short time since the initial introduction. Between-catchment variation may reflect population structure generated by local founders as the species spread and may indicate a large initial founder population at the time of the introduction into Britain, or multiple introductions. Within-catchment variation was consistent with expectations based on the water-borne dispersal of seeds in this species, and the relatively small dispersal range of likely pollinators. Independent introductions stand out in some cases as exceptions to the general pattern. Taken together the results are consistent with a relatively large initial founder population, and the subsequent spread of the species in local founder populations, followed by some level of inbreeding within local populations and novel introductions in some localities.     

Seed rain of fleshy and dry propagules in different habitats in the temperate rainforests of Chiloé Island,Chile

In temperate rainforests on Chiloé Island in southern Chile (42°S), most canopy trees bear fleshy, avian‐dispersed propagules, whereas emergent tree species have dry, wind‐borne propagules. In the present study, the following hypothesis was tested: regardless of species, fleshy propagules are deposited in greater numbers in canopy gaps and in forest margins and hence have a more heterogeneous seed shadow than wind‐dispersed propagules. To test this hypothesis, the seed rains of these two types of propagules were compared in the following forest habitats: (i) tree‐fall gaps (edges and centre); (ii) forest margins with adjacent pastures; and (iii) under closed canopy (forest interior). Seed collectors (30‐cm diameter) were placed in two (15 and 100 ha) remnant forest patches (n = 60–100 seed collectors per patch) distributed in the four habitats. Seeds were retrieved monthly from each collector during two reproductive seasons (1996, 1997). In both years, the seed rain was numerically dominated by two species with dry propagules (Laureliopsis philippiana and Nothofagus nitida) and three species with fleshy fruits (Drimys winteri, Amomyrtus luma, and Amomyrtus meli). The seed shadows of the two species with dry, wind‐dispersed seeds differed markedly. Seeds of L. philippiana were deposited predominantly in canopy openings, whereas N. nitida seeds fell almost entirely in the forest interior. The fleshy‐fruited species, Drimys and Amomyrtus spp., had similar seed deposition patterns in the various habitats studied, but the between‐year differences in seed rain were greater in Drimys winteri than in Amomyrtus spp. Although no more than 10% of fleshy‐fruited propagules reached the margins of the patch, approximately 7% of these were carried there by birds. Every year, canopy gaps (pooling data from edges and centres) concentrated approximately 60% of the total seed rain of both propagule types in both forest patches. Forest margins received less than 20% of the total seed rain, which was largely dominated by fleshy‐fruited species. Seed shadows were a species‐specific attribute rather than a trait associated with propagule type and dispersal mode.     

The presence of a cryptic barrier in the West Pacific Ocean suggests the effect of glacial climate changes on a widespread sea‐dispersed plant,Vigna marina (Fabaceae)

Ocean currents are an important driver of evolution for sea‐dispersed plants, enabling them to maintain reciprocal gene flow via sea‐dispersed diaspores and obtain wide distribution ranges. Although geographic barriers are known to be the primary factors shaping present genetic structure of sea‐dispersed plants, cryptic barriers which form clear genetic structure within oceanic regions are poorly understood. To test the presence of a cryptic barrier, we conducted a phylogeographic study together with past demographic inference for a widespread sea‐dispersed plant, Vigna marina, using 308 individuals collected from the entire Indo‐West Pacific (IWP) region. Chloroplast DNA variation showed strong genetic structure that separated populations into three groups: North Pacific (NP), South Pacific (SP) and Indian Ocean (IN) (F′_CT among groups = 0.954–1.000). According to the Approximate Bayesian computation inference, splitting time between NP and SP was approximately 20,200 years (95%HPD, 4,530–95,400) before present. Moreover, a signal of recent population expansion was detected in the NP group. This study clearly showed the presence of a cryptic barrier in the West Pacific region of the distributional range of V. marina. The locations of the cryptic barrier observed in V. marina corresponded to the genetic breaks found in other plants, suggesting the presence of a common cryptic barrier for sea‐dispersed plants. Demographic inference suggested that genetic structure related to this cryptic barrier has been present since the last glacial maximum and may reflect patterns of past population expansion from refugia.     

浙江磐安种子植物地理成分及与其他区系相似关系的研究

在野外调查和已有资料整理的基础上,分析了浙江磐安种子植物区系的组成和分布区类型。现知磐安共有野生种子植物144科、627属、1 298种(包括种以下分类单位);属的地理分布型统计表明,磐安种子植物中温带性质成分和热带性质成分比例相当,区系的温带、亚热带特征显著,应置于中国—日本森林植物亚区从暖温带向亚热带过渡的范围内。以包括磐安在内的国内22个种子植物区系谱的成分比率为指标,分别应用聚类分析中的组建均连法和排序分析中的主坐标法,生成了反映22个种子植物区系相似性关系的树系图和二维投影图,对区系间的相似性关系进行了研究,结果显示,两种分析方法相结合能较简明、客观地反映植物区系间的异同,可为多区系的关系比较提供参考。     

Safe Site and Seed Limitation in Cytisus Scoparius (Scotch Broom): Invasibility, Disturbance, and the Role of Cryptogams in a Glacial Outwash Prairie

In all plant populations, establishment is controlled by two factors: the supply of propagules and their access to ‘safe sites’ for growth. An infestation of invading pest plants results in a seed-production gradient, from the edge where seeds are limiting, to the center where seeds may be in excess. Do invaded sites become ‘saturated’ with seeds? How rapidly does this occur, and how does the process depend on the availability of safe sites? Are safe sites, and consequently invasion, promoted by disturbance? I quantified the response of seedling establishment to seed input and disturbance in Cytisus scoparius (Scotch broom), an exotic shrub invading glacial outwash prairie remnants in western Washington, USA. I used disturbance treatments to investigate the role of the thick cryptogamic layer in these prairies, disturbing cryptogams by scraping or by fire. The effect of fire was partitioned into two factors: burning of the background vegetation/substrate versus breaking C. scoparius seed dormancy, by adding seeds either before or after the burn. Seed treatments ranged from 20 to 1000 seeds per m². Both seed number and surface treatment showed significant effects on seedling density, along with a significant interaction between the two factors. Disturbance did not promote C. scoparius establishment; undisturbed plots produced more seedlings than burned or scraped plots. Within the burned plots, fire scarification appeared to increase germination but this effect was not significant. For germinated seedlings, mortality through the dry season (June–August) was not significantly different among surface treatments, nor did survivorship depend on density, with the result that initial differences in germination among the treatments persisted. The message that the undisturbed cryptogam layer facilitates C. scoparius establishment suggests that ‘ecosystem management’ strategies promoting healthy, undisturbed sites will not always be effective against invasive pest species.     

Effect of Geographic Origin and Ex Situ Growing Site on Phenology,Morphology, and Seed Yield of Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) Germplasm from the Rhaetian Alps,Italy

Species adapted to prevailing soil and climatic conditions and native to the same geographic context are increasingly recommended for ecological restoration at high altitude. Better knowledge is required on the level of variation within these species for morpho‐physiological traits and seed yield. Adequate and affordable seed production is a prerequisite for native species to be widely adopted for restoration interventions. This study evaluated the variation of yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) germplasm collected in the Rhaetian Alps, Italy. The worth of yarrow for restoration at high altitude has been repeatedly noted. The main goal of the study was to identify promising materials for selection purposes. The explored mountain section harbored valuable variation for traits of interest. Altitude, climate, and soil should frame an ecological correspondence between the collection site and the target restoration site, to secure the value of the native germplasm outside the boundaries of its collection area. The work also assessed any interaction between the germplasm and the ex situ growing environments, represented by a mountain and a lowland site, and verified the feasibility of the latter for seed multiplication. The growing site remarkably affected several morpho‐physiological characters. The lack of difference in mean seed yield between the two altitude‐contrasting sites suggested that seed multiplication of yarrow could also be conveniently carried out in lowland environments, with advantages in terms of production costs. Nonetheless, different yield responses in the two sites were observed, emphasizing the need of choosing the material to multiply based on the environment adopted for seed production.     

Influence of Paleolithic range contraction,admixture and long‐distance dispersal on genetic gradients of modern humans in Asia

Cavalli‐Sforza and coauthors originally explored the genetic variation of modern humans throughout the world and observed an overall east‐west genetic gradient in Asia. However, the specific environmental and population genetics processes causing this gradient were not formally investigated and promoted discussion in recent studies. Here we studied the influence of diverse environmental and population genetics processes on Asian genetic gradients and identified which could have produced the observed gradient. To do so, we performed extensive spatially‐explicit computer simulations of genetic data under the following scenarios: (a) variable levels of admixture between Paleolithic and Neolithic populations, (b) migration through long‐distance dispersal (LDD), (c) Paleolithic range contraction induced by the last glacial maximum (LGM), and (d) Neolithic range expansions from one or two geographic origins (the Fertile Crescent and the Yangzi and Yellow River Basins). Next, we estimated genetic gradients from the simulated data and we found that they were sensible to the analysed processes, especially to the range contraction induced by LGM and to the number of Neolithic expansions. Some scenarios were compatible with the observed east‐west genetic gradient, such as the Paleolithic expansion with a range contraction induced by the LGM or two Neolithic range expansions from both the east and the west. In general, LDD increased the variance of genetic gradients among simulations. We interpreted the obtained gradients as a consequence of both allele surfing caused by range expansions and isolation by distance along the vast east‐west geographic axis of this continent.     

Demography of the invasive shrub Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) at Barrington Tops,New South Wales: insights for management.

The exotic shrub Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) has invaded large areas of eucalypt woodland at Barrington Tops, New South Wales, where it forms dense stands that have significant impacts on vegetation structure, flora and fauna. Data are presented from four 25 m² plots, which have been studied since 1985. Two plots were located in uniform broom thickets of different ages, and two were located across the margins of broom stands, which have since expanded to cover the entire plots. All broom plants in the plots (other than young seedlings, which were counted) were mapped, tagged and monitored annually. New seedlings appeared annually, but there was no relationship between their numbers (varying between years) and subsequent recruitment of older plants. The probability of seedlings reaching first flowering was less than 2%, and of surviving to mature size (>10 cm² basal area) was negligible. Seedlings mainly died through suppression (shade). Individuals less than 50 cm high were also browsed. Recruitment occurred only where light levels were high, either before closure of the broom canopy or after senescence had led to canopy opening. From approximately 12–30 years after initial invasion, broom stands underwent self‐thinning of mature plants, accelerated by collapse of plants on to each other. Recruitment of new, maturing plants, after this period produced a stand that was less dense than that found after initial invasion. Broom is creating more disturbance‐prone environments due to its impacts on other biota, likely alterations to the fire regime, and by harbouring feral pigs. Further disturbance favours broom, and elsewhere it has resulted in massive seedling regeneration. While fire or other disturbance can be used to stimulate germination, and thereby reduce a large part of the soil seed bank, denser broom infestations are likely to result unless follow‐up treatments can be applied over long time periods. A wiser management option, at least in the short term, may be avoidance of all disturbance, especially for stands of mature broom.     

Influence of Soil Chemistry and Plant Physiology in the Phytoremediation of Cu,Mn, and Zn

Different anthropogenic sources of metals can result from agricultural, industrial, military, mining and urban activities that contribute to environmental pollution. Plants can be grown for phytoremediation to remove or stabilize contaminants in water and soil. Copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) are trace essential metals for plants, although their role in homeostasis in plants must be strictly regulated to avoid toxicity. In this review, we summarize the processes involved in the bioavailability, uptake, transport and storage of Cu, Mn and Zn in plants. The efficiency of phytoremediation depends on several factors including metal bioavailability and plant uptake, translocation and tolerance mechanisms. Soil parameters, such as clay fraction, organic matter content, oxidation state, pH, redox potential, aeration, and the presence of specific organisms, play fundamental roles in the uptake of trace essential metals. Key processes in the metal homeostasis network in plants have been identified. Membrane transporters involved in the acquisition, transport and storage of trace essential metals are reviewed. Recent advances in understanding the biochemical and molecular mechanisms of Cu, Mn and Zn hyperaccumulation are described. The use of plant-bacteria associations, plant-fungi associations and genetic engineering has opened a new range of opportunities to improve the efficiency of phytoremediation. The main directions for future research are proposed from the investigation of published results.     

genodive version 3.0: Easy‐to‐use software for the analysis of genetic data of diploids and polyploids

genodive version 3.0 is a user‐friendly program for the analysis of population genetic data. This version presents a major update from the previous version and now offers a wide spectrum of different types of analyses. genodive has an intuitive graphical user interface that allows direct manipulation of the data through transformation, imputation of missing data, and exclusion and inclusion of individuals, population and/or loci. Furthermore, genodive seamlessly supports 15 different file formats for importing or exporting data from or to other programs. One major feature of genodive is that it supports both diploid and polyploid data, up to octaploidy (2n = 8x) for some analyses, but up to hexadecaploidy (2n = 16x) for other analyses. The different types of analyses offered by genodive include multiple statistics for estimating population differentiation (φ_ST, F_ST, F?_ST, G_ST, G?_ST, G??_ST, D_est, R_ST, ρ), analysis of molecular variance‐based K‐means clustering, Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, hybrid index, population assignment, clone assignment, Mantel test, Spatial Autocorrelation, 23 ways of calculating genetic distances, and both principal components and principal coordinates analyses. A unique feature of genodive is that it can also open data sets with nongenetic variables, for example environmental data or geographical coordinates that can be included in the analysis. In addition, genodive makes it possible to run several external programs (lfmm , structure , instruct and vegan ) directly from its own user interface, avoiding the need for data reformatting and use of the command line. genodive is available for computers running Mac OS X 10.7 or higher and can be downloaded freely from: http://www.patrickmeirmans.com/software .