Prey of the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in a mixed forest-steppe landscape in northeastern Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)

We carried out a dietary analysis of Persian Leopards, Panthera pardus saxicolor, in a temperate region in north-eastern Iran, where the largest population nucleus exists across the subspecies range. We investigated 113 faecal samples collected between February 2009 and March 2010 in Golestan National Park. Faecal analysis revealed that leopards predominantly preyed upon wild ungulates, with the Wild Boar, Sus scrofa, being the most important prey species in terms of frequency and biomass. Eleven different prey items were identified, 7 of which were ungulates, comprising 99% of the total food items. We also found a spatial pattern in the prey composition of leopards: cervids were predominantly found in forest landscapes, whereas Wild Sheep, Ovis orientalis, was mainly found in steppe habitats, revealing the leopards’ predation on medium-to large-sized ungulates. Livestock remains were mainly extracted from steppe samples, but the overall contribution to the leopard diet pattern (approximately 8.5% of consumed biomass) suggested that conflict with human communities, at least within the investigated core parts of the National Park, is not a major concern. The study provides the first illustration of the Persian Leopard's dietary composition in a temperate area with a relatively high diversity of available prey, and can be a baseline for future investigation and human-leopard interaction monitoring     

Mortal combat: an apparent intraspecific killing by a male Black‐capped Chickadee

ABSTRACT Much theory about communication in aggressive contexts hinges on the assumption that injury or death is a potential outcome of fighting. However, published accounts of intraspecific killings during competitive interactions between songbirds are extremely rare. Here, we report an observation where one adult Black‐capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus) appeared to kill another. The two opponents were high‐ranking males that had been in the same winter flock, consistent with the prediction that mortal combat is most likely between evenly matched individuals. The interaction occurred when birds were defending territories and had begun nesting activities. A female that had previously been paired with the victim was also present during the interaction. Our observations suggest that the male chickadees were fighting for access to territorial resources or to a female, and indicate that aggressive interactions between songbirds can be costly and potentially fatal.     

Body size of Smilodon (Mammalia: Felidae)

The body masses of the three large saber-toothed machairodontines, Smilodon gracilis, S. fatalis, and S. populator, were estimated on the basis of 36 osteological variables from the appendicular skeleton of extant felids. A new model is introduced that takes the reliability of the predictor equations into account, since mass estimates are more reliable when computed from multiple variables per bone. At a body mass range of 55-100 kg, S. gracilis was comparable in size to extant jaguars, and S. fatalis was found to be somewhat lighter than previously assumed, with a body mass range of 160-280 kg, similar to that of the largest extant felid, the Siberian tiger. Smilodon populator was substantially heavier and larger than any extant felid, with a body mass range of 220-360 kg. Particularly large specimens of S. populator almost certainly exceeded 400 kg in body mass. The differences from previous estimates are most likely caused by differences in the databases used for mass estimation.     

Phylogeography, population history and conservation genetics of jaguars (Panthera onca, Mammalia, Felidae)

The jaguar (Panthera onca), the largest felid in the American Continent, is currently threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and human persecution. We have investigated the genetic diversity, population structure and demographic history of jaguars across their geographical range by analysing 715 base pairs of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region and 29 microsatellite loci in approximately 40 individuals sampled from Mexico to southern Brazil. Jaguars display low to moderate levels of mtDNA diversity and medium to high levels of microsatellite size variation, and show evidence of a recent demographic expansion. We estimate that extant jaguar mtDNA lineages arose 280 000-510 000 years ago (95% CI 137 000-830 000 years ago), a younger date than suggested by available fossil data. No strong geographical structure was observed, in contrast to previously proposed subspecific partitions. However, major geographical barriers such as the Amazon river and the Darien straits between northern South America and Central America appear to have restricted historical gene flow in this species, producing measurable genetic differentiation. Jaguars could be divided into four incompletely isolated phylogeographic groups, and further sampling may reveal a finer pattern of subdivision or isolation by distance on a regional level. Operational conservation units for this species can be defined on a biome or ecosystem scale, but should take into account the historical barriers to dispersal identified here. Conservation strategies for jaguars should aim to maintain high levels of gene flow over broad geographical areas, possibly through active management of disconnected populations on a regional scale.     

Ecological niche of the Asiatic Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) in the arid environment of Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)

The Asiatic Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, is a species of global conservation concern and a small population occurs in Iran in fragmented habitats located in the central parts of the country with a continental, arid climate. Naybandan Wildlife Refuge (NWR) holds the largest population in Iran. To understand better the factors which determine the occurrence of cheetahs in these areas, we applied an Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) to assess the relationship between occurrences of cheetahs across the NWR and topographic, biological, and anthropogenic factors. ENFA analysis results suggested that cheetahs have a tendency to inhabit areas different from the mean conditions of the study area and live in a narrow set of conditions. They prefer mountainous habitats far from flat areas, habitats near to water resources, and habitats with high prey densities. 13% of the NWR can be classified as suitable habitat for the cheetah, indicating a high conservation value of this reserve for the species.     

甘肃省豹的生存现状调查

豹曾广泛分布于甘肃省的陇中、陇东和陇南各地,但历史上大部分有豹分布地区的生境现已明显地不再适宜豹的生存。依据访问调查得到的信息并结合实地考察生境进行综合判断,目前豹存在可能性较大的地区有平凉地区的关山林业总场、张家川县马鹿林场、小陇山林业局张家林场和白水江国家级自然保护区。甘肃省豹濒危的主要原因是栖息地面积退缩,栖息地环境质量恶化,生境破碎化和人为猎捕。鉴于现阶段尚未查清豹的野生种群数量,应对豹及其猎物资源进行野外监测,采取积极有效的措施加强豹栖息地的保护与恢复。     

Leopard (Panthera pardus) occupancy in the Chure range of Nepal

Conservation of large carnivores such as leopards requires large and interconnected habitats. Despite the wide geographic range of the leopard globally, only 17% of their habitat is within protected areas. Leopards are widely distributed in Nepal, but their population status and occupancy are poorly understood. We carried out the sign‐based leopard occupancy survey across the entire Chure range (~19,000 km²) to understand the habitat occupancy along with the covariates affecting their occupancy. Leopard signs were obtained from in 70 out of 223 grids surveyed, with a naïve leopard occupancy of 0.31. The model‐averaged leopard occupancy was estimated to be 0.5732 (SE 0.0082) with a replication‐level detection probability of 0.2554 (SE 0.1142). The top model shows the additive effect of wild boar, ruggedness, presence of livestock, and human population density positively affecting the leopard occupancy. The detection probability of leopard was higher outside the protected areas, less in the high NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) areas, and higher in the areas with livestock presence. The presence of wild boar was strong predictor of leopard occupancy followed by the presence of livestock, ruggedness, and human population density. Leopard occupancy was higher in west Chure (0.70 ± SE 0.047) having five protected areas compared with east Chure (0.46 ± SE 0.043) with no protected areas. Protected areas and prey species had positive influence on leopard occupancy in west Chure range. Similarly in the east Chure, the leopard occupancy increased with prey, NDVI, and terrain ruggedness. Enhanced law enforcement and mass awareness activities are necessary to reduce poaching/killing of wild ungulates and leopards in the Chure range to increase leopard occupancy. In addition, maintaining the sufficient natural prey base can contribute to minimize the livestock depredation and hence decrease the human–leopard conflict in the Chure range.     

Intraspecific taxonomy and ecology characterize morphological divergence among cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii ssp. Richardson) populations

We compared the proportion of morphological variation accounted for by subspecies categories with the proportion encompassed by ecologically based categories in cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii ssp.), as a means of assessing the relative importance of each approach in identifying intraspecific diversity. We used linear and geometric morphometrics to compare measures of body shape, fin length, and head features between and within subspecies of cutthroat trout. Both categories accounted for a significant proportion of the variation between and within the subspecies; however, the larger proportion was explained by subspecific differences, with the greatest morphological divergence between coastal cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii ) and interior subspecies. Ecotypic categories within each subspecies also explained significant morphological differences: stream populations had longer fins and deeper, more robust bodies than lake populations. The largest ecotypic differences occurred between stream and lake populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii bouvieri ). Given that many cutthroat trout subspecies are of conservation concern, our study offers a better understanding of intraspecific variation existing within the species, providing precautionary evidence of incipient speciation, and a framework of describing phenotypic diversity that is correlated with ecological conditions.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 96 , 266–281.     

Investigating South American biogeographic history using patterns of skull shape variation on Cerdocyon thous (Mammalia: Canidae)

Patterns of geographic variation of the canid Cerdocyon thous have historically been obscured by its remarkable intraspecific morphological variability. The observed distribution is highly associated with phytophysiognomy, a feature considered highly dynamic along geological time. In the present study, we tested whether vegetation distribution during the Holocene Glacial Maximum of South America (HGM) explains the patterns of morphological variation within Cerdocyon thous . The species was divided in groups according to paleohabitats that could support their presence during the HGM, and then tested for differences in skull morphometrics. The results obtained demonstrate that the climatic changes during the HGM influenced the population structure of this species, resulting in the establishment of geographical groups with different degrees of morphological cohesion. Higher morphological cohesion found in the Northern group might be explained by the marked discontinuity between its geographical range and the rest of the species'distribution. The Eastern and Southern morphological divergence is less striking and, although this could be related to past vegetation distribution, the disappearance of those barriers leads to a population structure that could be slowly breaking down.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 98 , 77–84.     

Intraspecific interactions in a community of arboreal nesting termites (Isoptera: Termitidae)

In coconut plantations of northern New Guinea, the arboreal nesting termite community comprises three species:Nasutitermes princeps, N. novarumhebridarum, andMicrocerotermes biroi. In orde to assess the importance of intraspecific interactions in this community, we conducted pairwise encounters between batches of individuals in the laboratory and between entire nest populations in seminantural conditions. Three levels of agonism were defined in laboratory bioassays: anagonism, moderate agonism, and strong agonism. Anagonism was observed during all control tests with homocolonical groups and in some tests with allocolonial groups of all species. Moderate agonism included initial aggressiveness that subsequently faded out, and initially passive encounters where aggression progressively built up and led to fighting. Strong agonism corresponded to initial aggressiveness and fighting. Results obtained in alboratory bioassays were consistent with bioassays in seminatural conditions. WhenNasutitermes colonies were anagonists in laboratory bioassays, their foraging trails merged without aggression in field tests.N. princeps nests that were moderately agonistic in laboratory tests fought and either continued to avoid each other or finally joined after elimination of the most aggressive individuals. The most aggressiveM. biroi andN. princeps colonies fought and their foraging trails diverged afterward. Direct attacks on alien nests were winnessed inM. biroi. In all species, anagonism occurred in 21–34% of the combinations tested, between either geographically close or distantcolonies. An exeption was a group of 112 anagonist nests ofN. princeps, which most probably constituted a supercolony. The level of agonism betweenNasutitermes colonies was constant during the wet and dry season. Termite colonies excluded each other, both intra- and interspecifically, from the coconut trees, and their territories seem distributed in a mosaic pattern. Agonism between colonies may result in the elimination of the weakest colonies or in trail divergence, maintaining this mosaic. In cotrast, lack of agonism between some colonies suggests the possibility of colony fusion and gene exchanges without nuptial flights.     

Violent coalitionary attacks and intraspecific killing in wild white-faced capuchin monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cebus capucinus</Emphasis>)

During 12 years of observation, we have observed three confirmed and two inferred lethal coalitionary attacks on adult male white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) by members of two habituated social groups at Lomas Barbudal Biological Reserve, Costa Rica. In one case, an alpha male was badly wounded and evicted from his group, and when later found by his former groupmates he was attacked by several of them and died less than 24 h later. In two other cases, lone extra-group males were mobbed by adult and immature males of a bisexual group. One victim's abdomen was torn open and he died less than 24 h later. A second victim was quite badly bitten but may have escaped. The fourth and fifth cases resulted from intergroup encounters. One victim lost the use of both arms but may have survived, whereas the other died of unknown causes within an hour of the attack. The observed death rate from coalitionary aggression at our site is approximately the same as that reported for eastern chimpanzees. Because at least three of the five observed incidents involved large coalitions attacking lone victims, they support the general hypothesis that imbalances of power contribute to intraspecific killing in primates. However, the occurrence of lethal coalitional attacks in a species lacking fission–fusion social organization poses a challenge to the more specific version of the imbalance-of-power hypothesis proposed by Manson and Wrangham in 1991 to explain chimpanzee and human intergroup aggression.     

Induction of ovulation and successful artificial insemination in a Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor)

Techniques of artificial insemination have not been readily applied to zoo animals. The nonsurgical approach has been unsuccessful in nondomestic felids until the present study where pregnancy was achieved in a Persian leopard. The demonstration of this technique should encourage renewed attempts to artificially inseminate nondomestic felids.     

Primates are an important food resource for leopards (Panthera pardus) in Mahale,Tanzania

Leopard diets in the Kasoje area of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, were analysed by inspecting prey remains in 256 scats. This area is unique as leopard density is high despite a relatively low density of medium-sized ungulates, regarded as the most preferred prey of leopards. At least eleven prey mammal species were confirmed in the scats. Small prey mammals up to 10 kg comprised 91.4% of the relative biomass consumed; the mean prey biomass in each scat was 7.6 kg. Blue duiker (31.2%) was the most dominant prey species, followed by the red colobus (29.2%), semi-terrestrial Cercopithecinae (the vervet monkey and yellow baboon combined) (10.5%) and the red-tailed monkey (9.9%). At the order level, the most consumed prey taxon was Primates (53.8%), followed by Cetartiodactyla (39.6%) and Rodentia (5.8%). Among primates, the blue monkey was the most preferred prey species, followed by the red colobus and semi-terrestrial Cercopithecinae. High consumption of primates is a unique characteristic of the leopards in Mahale. This trend exemplifies the flexibility of leopards in their choices of prey, and such flexibility may be one of the underlying reasons for leopards exhibiting the broadest global distribution among all wild felid species.     

Skull morphology and functionality of extant Felidae (Mammalia: Carnivora): a phylogenetic and evolutionary perspective

Felids morphology and ecological role as hypercarnivores are quite constant, despite considerable body size variation among species. Skull morphological and functional features of 34 extant cat species were evaluated under a phylogenetic framework of the Felidae. Twenty skull measurements were analysed through Principal Component Analysis to assess the species morphofunctional spaces. Force indexes were obtained from static equilibrium equations to infer jaw mechanics. Correlations between morphological, functional, and ecological traits were tested by phylogenetically independent contrasts. In spite of the general cat‐like pattern, specific features on the skulls allowed differentiation among groups. Acinonyx jubatus, for instance, showed a shorter and shallower temporal fossa than other big cats, and their bite functionality is marked by an increased contribution of the masseteric system. A morphofunctional dichotomy between Neotropical and Eurasian/African small cats was detected, and is associated with the major transversal axes of the skulls. According to the contrast analyses, the skull size is correlated with the bite force and prey size, but it is uncorrelated with the variations on jaw mechanics (from temporalis or masseter muscle optimizations). Also, there was no correlation between functional differences on jaw muscles and the ratio of prey weight to cat weight. The efficiency of the jaw apparatus among cats is quite consistent; therefore, the different evolutionary trends of jaw mechanics seem to be caused by the casuistic fixation of phenotypical variations, rather than by specific adaptative selections. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 161 , 414–462.