Zoo behaviour science in the Research Centre for Vertebrate Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic (in the Animal Park of Berlin)

This is a report of the results of behaviour science studies in the Animal Park of Berlin and the Academy of Sciences in the German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.). The major goal of this research is to investigate the behaviour of rare animals as a basis for zoological research, systematics and comparative studies in evolution. In addition, further research provided information directly applicable to behavioural management in zoos, farms and wild animal collections. Three main comparative studies dealt with urination and defecation in mammals, allelomimetic behaviour in vertebrates, and audio-visual orientation responses in several species of birds and mammals. Ethograms were created for the Red Woolly Opossum, Maned Wolf, Takin and Giant Eland Antelope. Social and reproductive behaviour studies were conducted on the Wolf, Golden Lion Marmoset, Père David's Deer, Mouflon and Wild Boar. Reports are included on the circadian activity of Pigmy Armadillo and Wild Boar. New information was revealed regarding communication in Mouflon and Père David's Deer, in addition to the new finding that some social behaviour patterns in Wild Boar are dependent on circadian rhythms. Three wolf packs studied consecutively in the same enclosure revealed that each pack differed in its social behaviour and that the dominant female (alpha female) determined the social structure. The problem of animal-human interactions is discussed. Zoos are seen as a medial stage between wilderness and farm management. It is suggested that an important task of zoo behaviour science is to study the ability of wild animals to adapt to purposes such as animal farms, animal husbandry institutes and domestic animal productivity, and to study the behaviour of the original forms of domestic animals in order to better understand and manage them.     

The feasibility of reintroducing Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) to Scotland

The feasibility of reintroducing Wild Boar Sus scrofa to Scotland was investigated using the predictions of a Geographical information System (GIS) and a Population Viability Analysis (PVA). In the first stage of this study we summarized information from published literature on the biology, habitat requirements, home range use and population densities of Wild Boar, and using a GIS we identified four suitable sites of significant size, all located in Highlands. In the second stage we used a Population Viability Analysis (RAMAS/age), parameterized with published information on survival and fecundity of European Wild Boar populations, to calculate the number of animals required in a ‘release population’ if it were to survive on average 50 years. At the two largest sites that we considered, a release population of 50 animals would be likely to produce a viable population. The study concluded that biologically, the reintroduction of the Wild Boar is possible. However, a complementary study examining both the environmental and the potential wider ecological and socio-economic impacts of Wild Boar will be required before reintroduction is seriously considered.     

Mammals,agri‐environment schemes and set‐aside – what are the putative benefits?

• 1 The impacts of agricultural intensification on farmland wildlife have been the subject of increasing concern, particularly over the last two decades. Population declines have occurred for a number of mammalian species, sometimes drastically so, and changes in farming practice are believed to be significant contributory factors.
• 2 The major policy instruments for delivering environmental benefits on farmland are agri‐environment schemes. These encourage farmers to adopt more environmentally sensitive farming practices to promote farmland biodiversity. Additionally, compulsory set‐aside, which reduces agricultural surplus, could also have positive impacts on wildlife. In this paper we consider some of the putative benefits of agri‐environment schemes and set‐aside for mammals.
• 3 We review how establishment and management options within agri‐environment schemes and set‐aside might affect habitat resources for mammals. For example, conservation headlands increase plant and invertebrate resources within the crop edge for mammals such as wood mice. Grassy field margins can support communities of smaller mammals, and hedgerows may act as important commuting and hunting routes. Their potential will depend on factors such as seed mixtures used, timing and severity of cutting, and length of time they have been in place.
• 4 At a farm level, habitat heterogeneity may be increased through organic agriculture, which is supported by some agri‐environment schemes. Studies suggest significant benefits to mammals, including wood mice and bats. However, it is increasingly recognized that effective conservation of farmland mammals must seek solutions at the landscape scale, addressing such issues as habitat connectivity between farms. One approach may be the better targeting of scheme agreements.
• 5 We suggest that agri‐environment schemes and set‐aside can contribute to the conservation of mammals on farmland. Recent policy changes are likely to have further positive impacts on farmland wildlife but appropriate mammal monitoring programmes must be developed rigorously to assess their effects.

     

太阳能警示灯对野猪危害农田影响研究

近年来,野猪(Sus scrofa)数量增加,与人冲突不断加剧。2016年8至10月,在吉林省珲春市春化镇开展了太阳能警示灯防控野猪危害农田效果的研究。本研究将首次防控有效期和首次防控范围作为衡量防控措施是否有效的首要依据。首次防控有效期定义为从实验开始到野猪首次进入样地的时间。首次防控范围定义为野猪首次危害农田处与防控设施安放点的直线距离,并将其转化为范围指数。研究结果表明:(1)实验组与对照组相比,首次防控有效期均存在显著差异(P0.05),对照组的首次防控有效期为(2.7±0.5)d,1 000 m A红色警示灯的首次防控有效期为(36.0±1.4)d,效果最佳;1 000 m A白色警示灯的首次防控有效期为(7.3±0.5)d,防控效果最差。(2)除1 000 m A白色和蓝色警示灯的所有实验组以外,与对照组相比首次范围指数存在显著差异(P0.05)。(3)光质不同的实验组间首次防控有效期及首次范围指数存在显著差异(P0.05),红色警示灯的防控效果依次强于绿色、黄色、蓝色、白色;1 000 m A、800 m A、600 m A的不同光强实验组间防控效果无显著差异(P0.05)。(4)警示灯是否闪烁不能对野猪危害防控效果产生显著性影响(P0.05)。太阳能警示灯能够有效控制野猪的活动范围,从而降低野猪对农田的危害。     

Associations of GH gene variants with performance traits in F2 generations of European wild boar, Piétrain and Meishan pigs

The role of the porcine GH gene was investigated in 292 F₂ animals of mating Wild Boar × Piétrain and in 310 F₂ animals of mating Meishan × Piétrain. Forty-three traits of fattening, carcass composition, meat quality and stress resistance were recorded. For the analysis of associations between GH gene variants and quantitative traits, two restriction fragment length polymorphisms were examined. In the Meishan × Piétrain family eight traits related to fatness were significantly associated with GH genotypes, while in the Wild Boar × Piétrain family no significant associations were found. In the Meishan × Piétrain cross, the GH locus explained 11·7% to 17·7% of the total phenotypic variance in the F₂ population. The possibility of multiple alleles at the GH locus is discussed. Based on these results, we conclude that the GH locus should be further investigated in commercial breeds to determine its suitability for use in marker-assisted selection programmes.     

Can shooting be an effective management tool for foxes? Preliminary insights from a management programme

Historically, shooting has been a popular method for controlling foxes in Australia, but past research has shown it to be an ineffective method for significantly reducing fox population numbers. These past studies investigated shooting when conducted in isolated, one‐off programmes. In more recent years large, coordinated group fox management programmes has become popular in both agricultural and conservation areas. These landscape scale programmes give more chance of long‐term respite from predation damage by slowing down the immigration rates of foxes into the culled area. Studies have been conducted investigating the effectiveness of large‐scale group fox management programmes that primarily used 1080 baiting as the method of control to protect vulnerable livestock and small animal. This study investigated the potential of a large‐scale group programme that used shooting as the main form of control to reduce the impact of fox predation.     

北京市延庆区哺乳动物多样性、 分布及影响因素

2017和2018年,综合样线调查法、红外相机法、样方笼捕法、洞穴调查法和访问调查法五种方法对北京市延庆区哺乳动物多样性及分布进行调查,并分析了影响其多度与分布的因素。本次调查结果显示,北京市延庆区有哺乳动物7目15科21种。从相对丰富度指数(RAI)来看,野猪(Sus scrofa)占绝对优势(28.27%),其次猪獾(Arctonyx collaris)(21.47%)、亚洲狗獾(Meles leucurus)(13.79%),最少的是山东小麝鼩(Crocidura shantungensis)和东北鼢鼠(Myospalax psilurus)仅为0.17%。从分布上来看,野猪分布最广,占全部调查网格数的84.21%;其次是猪獾和亚洲狗獾,各占73.68%;山东小麝鼩等6个物种各只在1个网格中记录到,占全部网格的5.26%。所有工作区域中,延庆区西南的松山保护区及野鸭湖保护区物种丰富度最高,东北部的水头沟和九眼楼风景区物种丰富度最低。当前威胁哺乳动物多样性的因素主要是"水源情况"和"人类活动",为更好地保护该区域哺乳动物多样性,建议:(1)在缺水的区域进行人工引水或建立永久补水点;(2)在非保护区加强对野生动物的保护宣传,以减少旅游登山等对野生哺乳动物的干扰。     

Flagship species on covers of US conservation and nature magazines

Some conservation organizations publish magazines that showcase current conservation and research projects, attract new subscribers and maintain membership, often using flagship species to promote these objectives. This study investigates the nature of flagship species featured on the covers of ten representative US conservation and nature magazines, Defenders, National Wildlife, Wildlife Conservation, Zoonooz, Nature Conservancy, Outdoor America, Sierra, Audubon, California Wild and Natural History. Operationally defining flagship species by diet, taxonomic order, body size and IUCN status, we found that magazines tend to use mammal and bird species rather than invertebrate, fish, amphibian, reptile or plant taxa on their covers. Featured birds were mostly omnivorous or piscivorous, large-bodied and of little conservation concern; featured mammals were mainly carnivorous or herbivorous, large-bodied and of considerable conservation concern. These analyses confirm, for the first time, anecdotal observations about conservation organizations focusing their publicity and programmes on large, charismatic species to raise awareness and funds and raise the spectre that the public may be exposed to only a selected sample of conservation problems.     

An overview of the ecology,management and conservation of Australia’s temperate woodlands

Summary Australia’s temperate woodlands are environments of cultural and ecological importance and significant repositories of Australia’s biodiversity. Despite this, they have been heavily cleared, much remaining vegetation is in poor condition and many species of plants and animals are threatened. Here, we provide a brief overview of key issues relating to the ecology, management and policy directions for temperate woodlands, by identifying and discussing ten themes. When addressing issues relating to the conservation and management of temperate woodlands, spatial scale is very important, as are the needs for a temporal perspective and a complementary understanding of pattern and process. The extent of landscape change in many woodland environments means that woodland patches, linear networks and paddock trees are critical elements, and that there can be pervasive effects from ‘problem’ native species such as the Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephala). These consequences of landscape change highlight the challenge to undertake active management and restoration as well as effective monitoring and long‐term data collection. In developing approaches for conservation and management of temperate woodlands, it is essential to move our thinking beyond reserves to woodland conservation and management on private land, and recognise the criticality of cross‐disciplinary linkages. We conclude by identifying some emerging issues in woodland conservation and management. These include the need to further develop non‐traditional approaches to conservation particularly off‐reserve management; the value of documenting approaches and programmes that demonstrably lead to effective change; new lessons that can be learned from intact examples of temperate woodlands; and the need to recognise how climate change and human population growth will interact with conservation and management of temperate woodlands in future decades.     

Phylogenetic relationships of Australian and New Zealand feral pigs assessed by mitochondrial control region sequence and nuclear GPIP genotype

Pigs were introduced into Australia and New Zealand in the 18th and 19th centuries, with some establishing feral populations. With few records of pig introductions into these two countries, molecular phylogenetic analysis was used to assess their origins. Mitochondrial (mt) control region sequence and nuclear glucosephosphate isomerase pseudogene (GPIP) restriction fragments were used, as distinct European and Asian domestic pig and Wild Boar control region clades and GPIP genotypes can be recognised. Feral pig control region sequences clustered with either European or Asian domestic pig sequences and both Asian and European GPIP alleles were segregating. It was not possible to distinguish direct importation of Asian domestic animals into Australia and New Zealand from indirect introgression of Asian domestic sequences via Europe. However, the clustering of three feral control region sequences of pigs from northern Australia with Asian Wild Boar implies unrecorded introduction of Wild Boar or crossbred animals into Australia. However, two of these feral pigs had European GPIP alleles. In combination, analyses of control region and GPIP markers suggest that both European and Asian pigs have contributed in similar frequencies to the origins of Australian feral pigs.     

Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Swine and Wild Small Mammals in the Proximity of Swine Farms and in Natural Environments in Ontario, Canada

Wild animals not normally exposed to antimicrobial agents can acquire antimicrobial agent-resistant bacteria through contact with humans and domestic animals and through the environment. In this study we assessed the frequency of antimicrobial resistance in generic Escherichia coli isolates from wild small mammals (mice, voles, and shrews) and the effect of their habitat (farm or natural area) on antimicrobial resistance. Additionally, we compared the types and frequency of antimicrobial resistance in E. coli isolates from swine on the same farms from which wild small mammals were collected. Animals residing in the vicinity of farms were five times more likely to carry E. coli isolates with tetracycline resistance determinants than animals living in natural areas; resistance to tetracycline was also the most frequently observed resistance in isolates recovered from swine (83%). Our results suggest that E. coli isolates from wild small mammals living on farms have higher rates of resistance and are more frequently multiresistant than E. coli isolates from environments, such as natural areas, that are less impacted by human and agricultural activities. No Salmonella isolates were recovered from any of the wild small mammal feces. This study suggests that close proximity to food animal agriculture increases the likelihood that E. coli isolates from wild animals are resistant to some antimicrobials, possibly due to exposure to resistant E. coli isolates from livestock, to the resistance genes of these isolates, or to antimicrobials through contact with animal feed.     

Some new variants of serum protease inhibitors in Meishan pigs

Serum samples of Meishan (13 animals) and Meishan x Wild Boar crosses (361 animals) were analysed by means of two-dimensional electrophoresis. Some new variants in protease inhibitor systems PO1A, PO1B and PI2 are reported.     

Media framing of the Cayman Turtle Farm: Implications for conservation conflicts

Conflicts over natural resource use and management often arise where groups have different goals or priorities. The media can play an important dual role in these conflicts; article content might offer insights about public opinion, whilst media may shape debates and how issues are perceived by the public and decision-makers. Wildlife farming is a contentious conservation tool attracting the attention of worldwide media, and associated conflicts among different interest groups may undermine its applicability. We investigated the media’s portrayal of the Cayman Turtle Farm (CTF), a facility in the Cayman Islands which breeds green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) for human consumption, to investigate how the media presents information about wildlife farming (i.e. framing), consider its potential roles influencing conflicts and explore how it can be used for conservation conflict management. Content analysis was used to compare framing, article valence, and stakeholder representation in 634 newspaper articles from the international and local media. These media stories were framed in terms of: tourism, conflict, conservation, culture/community, management, and utilisation. International articles most often described CTF as a tourism facility. However, during a media campaign by an international animal welfare group, CTF was also often depicted as a source of controversy. Trade in turtle products was mostly debated in older articles. Local media mainly had a financial focus. Conflict framing was associated with a negative article valence, and conflict framed articles were significantly more likely to contain no conservation information. Mentions of environmental interest groups were significantly associated with negative articles, whereas academics were significantly more likely to be mentioned in positive articles. Conservationists must consider stakeholder objectives from the outset of interventions and be aware of the multiple roles the media might play. Media analysis and effectively harnessing the potential of media outlets should be considered as tools for managing conservation conflicts.     

Further role of zoos in conservation: Monitoring wildlife use and the dilemma of receiving donated and confiscated animals

The role of zoos in conservation has evolved. Additional roles that zoos can play in conservation include monitoring live wildlife use (one of the main threats for many species). Zoos in many parts of the world are offered animals by the public and are required to receive animals confiscated by the authorities. By quantifying these animals, zoos can monitor live wildlife use rates and trends and obtain relevant information on the environment of a region which can assist in situ conservation management. Zoos are sometimes forced to receive unwanted animals from the public or the authorities. Receiving these animals is a burden for zoos. Agreements between zoos and governments are important to take care of these animals and to optimize the use of conservation resources. It is not possible or desirable to maintain all donated and seized animals. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources provides useful guidelines on what to do with them. In all cases, species conservation should take precedence over individual animal welfare. These issues are illustrated with data collected at Zoológico Regional Miguel Alvarez del Toro (ZOOMAT) in Chiapas, southern Mexico. Zoo Biol 24:115–124, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

REHABILITATION AND RELEASE OF MARINE MAMMALS IN THE UNITED STATES: RISKS AND BENEFITS

Rehabilitation of stranded marine mammals elicits polarized attitudes: initially done alongside display collections, but release of rehabilitated animals has become more common. Justifications include animal welfare, management of beach use conflict, research, conservation, and public education. Rehabilitation cost and risks have been identified that vary in degree supported by data rather than perception. These include conflict with fisheries for resources, ignorance of recipient population ecology, poor understanding of long-term survival, support of the genetically not-so-fit, introduction of novel or antibiotic-resistant pathogens, harm to human health, and cost. Thus facilities must balance their welfare appeal against public education, habitat restoration, human impact reduction, and other conservation activities. Benefits to rehabilitating marine mammals are the opportunity to support the welfare of disabled animals and to publish good science and so advance our understanding of wild populations. In specific cases, the status of a population may make conservation the main reason for rehabilitation. These three reasons for rehabilitation lead to contrasting, and sometimes conflicting, management needs. We therefore outline a decision tree for rehabilitation managers using criteria for each management decision, based on welfare, logistics, conservation, research, and funding to define limits on the number of animals released to the wild.     

Predation of potential insect pests in oil palm plantations,rubber tree plantations,and fruit orchards

In human‐modified landscapes, important ecological functions such as predation are negatively affected by anthropogenic activities, including the use of pesticides and habitat degradation. Predation of insect pests is an indicator of healthy ecosystem functioning, which provides important ecosystem services, especially for agricultural systems. In this study, we compare predation attempts from arthropods, mammals, and birds on artificial caterpillars in the understory, between three tropical agricultural land‐use types: oil palm plantations, rubber tree plantations, and fruit orchards. We collected a range of local and landscape‐scale data including undergrowth vegetation structure; elevation; proximity to forest; and canopy cover in order to understand how environmental variables can affect predation. In all three land‐use types, our results showed that arthropods and mammals were important predators of artificial caterpillars and there was little predation by birds. We did not find any effect of the environmental variables on predation. There was an interactive effect between land‐use type and predator type. Predation by mammals was considerably higher in fruit orchards and rubber tree than in oil palm plantations, likely due to their ability to support higher abundances of insectivorous mammals. In order to maintain or enhance natural pest control in these common tropical agricultural land‐use types, management practices that benefit insectivorous animals should be introduced, such as the reduction of pesticides, improvement of understory vegetation, and local and landscape heterogeneity.     

Troublesome neighbours: Changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda

Long-term human–wildlife sympatry depends on the willingness and capacity of local people to coexist with wild animals. With human population growth and deforestation for agriculture, farmers increasingly live in proximity to wildlife, including large mammals of conservation concern. Understanding local perspectives and concerns regarding wildlife is essential for informing appropriate management strategies that reduce conflicts and promote sustainable coexistence. Social science approaches therefore have a critical role in integrated conservation programmes. We undertook an attitude survey to understand residents’ perspectives about sharing a landscape with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an unprotected forest–agriculture mosaic in Uganda. Interviews (n = 134) in 12 villages demonstrate residents’ ambivalence towards living alongside these protected yet potentially troublesome mammals. Chimpanzee behaviour is reported to have undergone recent changes. Residents claim apes increasingly enter villages for food, threaten people, and pose a particular threat to children's safety. Chimpanzee numbers are believed to have increased locally. Most interviewees fear chimpanzees, considering them dangerous. Crop losses to chimpanzees were widely reported. Farmers tolerate raiding of domestic fruits, but not cash-crops. Results demonstrate that attitudes towards wildlife are not fixed. Reported changes to chimpanzee behaviour are challenging villagers’ traditionally benign attitude towards them. Even so, residents acknowledge benefits to chimpanzees because they reportedly displace other crop-raiding wildlife which, unlike chimpanzees, damage important staple food crops. Survey findings are contextualised with respect to recent, major land-use changes in Uganda (clearance of unprotected forest for timber and agriculture) that have precipitated a sharp rise in farmer–chimpanzee interactions. We discuss the study's broader implications for protected mammal management and conflict mitigation in human-dominated landscapes, and ask whether it is appropriate to expect impoverished rural farmers to accommodate large-bodied mammals that pose a potential threat to their safety and livelihoods.     

The use of willingness-to-pay approaches in mammal conservation

With limited monetary resources available for nature conservation, policy‐makers need to be able to prioritize conservation objectives. This has traditionally been done using qualitative ecological criteria. However, since declines in species and habitats are largely the result of socio‐economic and political forces, human preferences and values should also be taken into account. An environmental economics technique, contingent valuation, provides one way of doing this by quantifying public willingness‐to‐pay towards specific conservation objectives. In this paper, the use of this approach for quantifying public preferences towards the UK Biodiversity Action Plans for four different British mammal species is considered. The species included are the Red Squirrel Sciurus vulgaris, the Brown Hare Lepus europaeus, the Otter Lutra lutra and the Water Vole Arvicola terrestris. Willingness‐to‐pay for conservation was increased by the inclusion of the Otter among the species, membership of an environmental organization and awareness of the general and species‐specific threats facing British mammals. It was reduced by the presence of the Brown Hare among the species being considered. These findings for British mammals are compared with other willingness‐to‐pay studies for mammal conservation worldwide. Willingness‐to‐pay tends to be greater for marine mammals than terrestrial ones, and recreational users of species (tourists or hunters) are generally more willing than residents to pay towards species conservation. The choice of technique for eliciting willingness‐to‐pay from respondents is also shown to be highly significant. Willingness‐to‐pay values for British mammals derived from contingent valuation are sensitive to the species included rather than merely symbolic. This indicates that, with care, such measures can be used as a reliable means of quantifying public preferences for conservation, and therefore contributing to the decision‐making process. However, irrespective of the internal consistency of contingent valuation, the validity of the approach, especially for use in nature conservation, is disputed. Willingness‐to‐pay is likely to reflect many interrelated factors such as ethical and moral values, knowledge and tradition, and monetary values may not be an adequate representation of these broader considerations. Willingness‐to‐pay approaches should therefore be used in addition to, rather than in place of, expert judgements and more deliberative approaches towards policy decision‐making for conservation.     

Not all predators are equal: a continent‐scale analysis of the effects of predator control on Australian mammals

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Mobilizing metaphors: the popular use of keystone,flagship and umbrella species concepts

Misrepresentation of terminology is a major impediment for attempts at enhancing public conservation literacy. Despite being critically important for improving conservation practice, there have been few systematic analyses of the popular use of conservation terminology. This paper draws from science communication studies and metaphor analysis, to examine how keystone, flagship and umbrella species concepts are used and represented in non-academic contexts. 557 news articles containing these terms were systematically analyzed. Mammals featured in 60% of articles on keystones, 55% on flagships and 63% on umbrella species. Number of articles explaining the terms keystone (35%) and flagship (31%) was low, and keystones were the most misrepresented term. Keystones were metaphorically linked with balance, flagships with representation and umbrella species with protection. These metaphors influenced public interpretation of scientific terminology, oriented actions towards select species, and led to a valuation of such actions. Together, the findings highlight three important aspects of popular use of conservation terminology: (1) communication is largely biased towards mammals, (2) everyday language plays a vital role in the interpretation of concepts, and (3) metaphors influence peoples’ actions and understanding. Conservation biologists need to engage with issues of language if public conservation literacy is to be improved. Further evaluations of concepts with high public and policy relevance, systematic identification of communication shortfalls, and linguistic assessments prior to promoting new terms are potential ways of achieving this.