Encountering the ‘Other’: Pilgrims,Tourists and Boatmen in the City of Varanasi

Contemporary studies of tourism in the ‘Third World’ often focus on the farreaching economic, cultural and environmental consequences of tourism on local populations. Scholars have argued that guest/host interactions reflect a relation of domination in which, much like imperialism, wealthy Western tourists travel in search of the exotic Orient. The tourists are then served and catered to by local communities who are dependent on their business. Such polarities tend to privilege the ‘guests’ as the purveyors of change, while the creative and innovative practices of the host group are rendered invisible. In this paper, I examine the boatmen of Varanasi and their role as culture brokers, negotiating the sacred city for visitors who include pilgrims, domestic and foreign tourists. Concentrating mostly on the relationship between the boatmen and foreign tourists, I look at the multiple strategies and tactics that boatmen have developed to satisfy their needs and desires to their own advantage. Such techniques vary according to the visitors and their desired experience. Thus, the boatmen are quick to ‘tune in’ to those with whom they are dealing. Moreover, the close encounters that boatmen have with tourists enable them to view Western culture as well as their own local culture critically.     

游客对低碳旅游的认知和意愿——以丽江市为例

低碳旅游是不同于传统旅游产业的一种转型产业模式,是当前旅游业发展的新趋势,同时也改变着旅游者的消费方式。采用问卷调查的方法,对丽江市的游客关于低碳旅游的认知和意愿进行了研究,结果表明:(1)低碳旅游的认知水平程度较高(68.5%),受教育程度、入住酒店星级和年平均旅游次数与认知程度显著正相关。91%的受访者认为公众意识是低碳旅游首先应被考虑的影响因素,大多数游客认为可以通过改变旅游交通(87.5%)和住宿方式(57.5%)来减少旅游业的碳排放。(2)游客对低碳旅游的意愿程度普遍较高(79.5%),入住酒店星级、年平均旅游次数和人均旅游花费与低碳旅游意愿显著负相关。定期旅行的游客对低碳旅游的认知最强,但行为的改变意愿却最弱。不经常旅行的游客则更愿意实现低碳旅游,但实际上对于旅游模式改变的影响也较小。(3)现阶段,低碳旅游的推行实际上也存在一定的难度和问题。46.5%的受访者认为目前低碳旅游流于形式和口号,76%的游客认为目前我国景区的游客普遍缺乏低碳旅游的良好习惯。(4)从政府和旅游主管部门、旅游企业、旅游者三方面提出了发展低碳旅游的相关建议。     

国内外生态旅游研究的问题及进展

从生态旅游的概念和内涵入手,介绍了国内外生态旅游研究的主要问题和进展,包括自然区保护、区域经济发展、政府组织和非政府组织的作用、主办社区、旅游业和游客等6个方面。针对国内生态旅游研究中存在问题,从方法、广度、深度和层次4个角度,提出国内生态旅游研究的具体思路和方向。     

国外生态旅游对当地社区生计的影响研究综述

生态旅游因具备实现生物多样性保护和减轻贫困双重目标的潜力,成为全球学术界关注的焦点。鉴于生态旅游在影响社区生计方面的研究争议,论文综览国外大量相关文献,在界定生态旅游内涵的基础上,从经济影响、社区参与、能力建设、社会文化和公共设施4个方面系统梳理国外生态旅游对目的地社区生计的影响。研究发现旅游发展对目的地生计的影响存在不确定性,社区资源控制权、旅游收益规模、地方介入旅游产业供应链能力、自身能力、旅游管理等因素对旅游扶贫效应起着关键性作用。最后,对当前研究展开评述并对未来研究提出三点展望,以期为中国未来生态旅游影响研究和生态旅游开发提供借鉴和指导。     

Impacts of tourism on threatened plant taxa and communities in Australia

Summary Many Australian plant species and communities appear to be threatened by tourism. A review of management plans, recovery plans and a survey of experts found that tourism was considered to be a direct or indirect threatening process for 72 plant taxa. This is one fifth of threatened species for which threats have been identified. In addition, many more species are listed as threatened by weeds, trampling, pathogens, clearing and collecting. These are often indirect impacts of tourism, particularly in conservation reserves where tourism is the only commercial activity permitted. Tourism was also considered to be a threatening process for several plant communities. A lack of recognition of the importance of direct and indirect impacts of tourism may potentially hinder the conservation of plant species and communities both in Australia and overseas. It may also limit the effectiveness of sustainable tourism policies, particularly in conservation reserves.     

Quantification of climate tourism potential of Croatia based on measured data and regional modeling

Tourism is one of the most important economic sectors in Croatia. The Adriatic coast is a popular travel destination for tourists, especially during the summer months. During their activities, tourists are affected by atmospheric conditions and therefore by weather and climate. Therefore, it is important to have reliable information about thermal conditions as well as their impacts on human beings. Here, the climate tourism potential of Croatia is presented and quantified on the basis of three selected stations in different climatic regions. The physiologically equivalent temperature is used for analysis as well as other climatic parameters relevant for tourism and recreation. The results already point to hot conditions for outdoor activities in summer during afternoons, especially along the coast but also for continental regions, resulting in a reduction of the climate tourism potential. In the future, this trend looks set to increase, possibly leading to a changing tourism sector in Croatia requiring adaptation and new strategies.     

基于替代式自下而上法的区域旅游交通碳排放测度

区域旅游交通碳排放测度是分解旅游业减碳任务的一个难题。在剖析替代式自下而上法机理的基础上,以长三角为例,依托归纳法和变异系数法,尝试从人均GDP、人均消费水平和人均运输线路长度三方面测算出游距离,采取以实地调研数据为主、辅之以Mus TT模型法拟定各旅游交通方式的距离比例,立足区情确定碳排放系数,并以区域输入和输出的双向旅游流的人次比值法则对替代结果进行还原调整。研究表明:(1)2011年,长三角旅游交通碳排放总量为8.32 Mt,其中江苏省、浙江省和上海市分别为3.23、2.98 Mt和2.11 Mt;(2)飞机和自驾车共占排放量的71.64%,较明显低于世界平均比例,二者是降低旅游交通碳排放的关键;旅游公共交通的碳排放比例具有远高于发达国家甚至全球平均水平的"中国式"烙印;由高碳排放系数的旅游交通方式向低碳排放系数甚至零碳排放系数的转变,是旅游交通减排的基本方向。     

湿地自然保护区旅游者环境教育感知研究——以盐城丹顶鹤、麋鹿国家自然保护区为例

环境教育是当前生态旅游研究中的热点论题。基于生态旅游动机、环境教育途径、环境教育感知及环境教育效果4个结构变量,以生态旅游发展处于起步阶段的盐城丹顶鹤保护区和处于稳定发展阶段的盐城麋鹿保护区为例,构建湿地自然保护区旅游者环境教育感知影响结构关系模型,深入分析不同生命周期阶段生态旅游地旅游者环境教育感知分异及其影响因素。结果表明:(1)生态旅游动机、环境教育途径、环境教育感知均对环境教育效果产生正向影响。丹顶鹤保护区生态旅游动机对环境教育效果产生显著正向影响,环境教育途径、环境教育感知对环境教育效果均产生正向影响;麋鹿保护区生态旅游动机、环境教育途径均对环境教育效果产生正向影响,环境教育感知对环境教育效果产生显著正向影响。(2)在生态旅游动机、环境教育途径、环境教育感知3个分维度上,丹顶鹤保护区分别以一般生态旅游动机、常规环境教育途径、表层环境教育感知为主,麋鹿保护区则分别以严格生态旅游动机、专门环境教育途径、深度环境教育感知为主。(3)不同生命周期阶段生态旅游地游客环境教育效果存在差异。丹顶鹤保护区游客环境教育效果主要集中在态度、行为效果上,意识效果为辅,知识、技能效果作用较小;麋鹿保护区游客环境教育效果则以知识、态度效果为主,行为、技能、意识效果均起辅助作用。     

Effects of climate change on parasitic plants: the root hemiparasiticOrobanchaceae

Climate change may affect hemisparasiticOrobanchaceae (ex-Scrophulariaceae) both directly through impacts on hemiparasite physiology and indirectly through impacts on host plants. This dual action suggests particular sensitivity of the parasite to climate change and any associated impacts on hosts and other members of the community. While little research has addressed the responses of parasitic plants to climate change in natural environments, impacts are predicted from controlled environment studies together with a knowledge of the key ecophysiological traits of hemiparasiticOrobanchaceae, in particular ofStriga species, which are important weeds in semi-arid tropical agro-ecosystems, andRhinanthus species, which can be important components of (principally) grassland communities in the northern temperate zone. The main mode of important components of (principally) grassland communities in the northern temperate zone. The main mode of action of both elevated CO₂ and warming will be through changes in photosynthesis and stomatal functioning. Enhanced photosynthesis of the hemiparasite and host will increase parasite carbon gains but may also increase the demand for host mineral nutrients. Mineral nutrition may, therefore, mediate the impacts of climate change on host-parasite associations. The relative insensitivity of hemiparasite stomata to elevated CO₂ suggests that high stomatal conductances may be maintained and thus solute uptake may become limited by soil drying driven by higher rates of evapotranspiration and reduced precipitation. Climate change impacts on host-parasite interactions at the individual level will ultimately affect hemiparasite impacts at the community level. Community impacts will be greatest where climate change considerably favours hemiparasite populations or, conversely, causes them to disappear from communities where they were formerly abundant. Impacts will further be mediated by climate impacts on hosts, and the natural enemies of hosts and parasites alike. Further, the wide host range of many root hemiparasitic plants may facilitate migration of their populations through new communities under a changing climate.     

The Impacts of Climate and Social Changes on Cloudberry (Bakeapple) Picking: a Case Study from Southeastern Labrador

The traditional subsistence activities of Indigenous communities in Canada’s subarctic are being affected by the impacts of climate change, compounding the effects of social, economic and political changes. Most research has focused on hunting and fishing activities, overlooking berry picking as an important socio-cultural activity and contributor to the diversity of food systems. We examined the vulnerability of cloudberry (referred to as ‘bakeapple’ consistent with local terminology) picking to environmental changes in the community of Cartwright, Labrador using semi-structured interviews (n =?18), field surveys, and satellite imagery. We identified the components of vulnerability including: the environmental changes affecting the abundance, quality, and ripening time of bakeapples (i.e., exposure), the characteristics of the community that affect how these changes have local impacts (i.e., sensitivity), and the ways in which the community is responding to environmental changes (i.e., adaptive capacity). Our results confirm that environmental changes related to permafrost, vegetation, and water have occurred at the bakeapple picking grounds with observed impacts on bakeapples. It is becoming increasingly difficult for bakeapple pickers to respond to variable growth as in the past because of changes in summer settlement patterns that place families farther from their bakeapple patches. We conclude that harvesters in Cartwright have high adaptive capacity to respond to environmental changes due to their knowledge of their bakeapple patches, and at present, socioeconomic changes have had a greater impact than environmental changes on their harvesting capacity.     

Community health impacts of surface mining in the Upper West Region of Ghana: The roles of mining odors and dust

The emergence of the gold mining industry and the influx of artisanal and small-scale mining following recent discoveries of gold deposits in Northern Ghana have posed new socio-cultural, economic, environment and health challenges for residents in this dry savannah zone that is already facing negative consequences of environmental change. Yet, the extent to which residents in close proximity (impacted) and distant (affected) host communities perceive the impact of mining on their health has been nascent. Using cross sectional survey data (n=801) and applying the negative log-log regression technique, we examine residents’ self-rated health in mining communities in the Upper West Region of Ghana. The findings suggest that residents in impacted communities who believed that odors from mining activities could have health impact were twice more likely to report their health as poor, while those who were uncertain were 98% more likely to rate their health poor compared to those who disbelieved. However, sighting of dust was not significantly associated with subjective health in both impacted and affected communities. Based on these findings, it is recommended that Ghana's Minerals and Mining Act be reviewed to include the active involvement of host communities in mine leases while enforcing strict environmental best practices.     

生态旅游项目的环境影响评价方法(EIA)与实践--以武夷山大峡谷森林生态旅游区为例

生态旅游是一种以自然区域和当地文化为旅游对象,以理解、欣赏和提高旅游者生态保护意识为目的的旅游活动。通过比较生态旅游项目与传统旅游项目和工业建设项目的特点,提出生态旅游项目环境影响评价的技术要点和方法。以此理论方法为指导,对武夷山大峡谷森林生态旅游区进行环评例证。     

Different Effects of Transgenic Maize and Nontransgenic Maize on Nitrogen-Transforming Archaea and Bacteria in Tropical Soils

The composition of the rhizosphere microbiome is a result of interactions between plant roots, soil, and environmental conditions. The impact of genetic variation in plant species on the composition of the root-associated microbiota remains poorly understood. This study assessed the abundances and structures of nitrogen-transforming (ammonia-oxidizing) archaea and bacteria as well as nitrogen-fixing bacteria driven by genetic modification of their maize host plants. The data show that significant changes in the abundances (revealed by quantitative PCR) of ammonia-oxidizing bacterial and archaeal communities occurred as a result of the maize host being genetically modified. In contrast, the structures of the total communities (determined by PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) were mainly driven by factors such as soil type and season and not by plant genotype. Thus, the abundances of ammonia-oxidizing bacterial and archaeal communities but not structures of those communities were revealed to be responsive to changes in maize genotype, allowing the suggestion that community abundances should be explored as candidate bioindicators for monitoring the possible impacts of cultivation of genetically modified plants.     

The Noble Savage Reconfigured: Paradox and Mimesis on Safari in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

ABSTRACT

Tourists to Africa covet close encounters with dangerous wildlife, revelling in the simulation of the primal risks of the savannah, and yet they expect to be kept safe. Similarly, many tourists wish to engage with exotic local people, but in ways that ensure they feel comfortable socially and physically. Safari guides in the Okavango Delta fulfil these desires by facilitating close encounters with wildlife during luxury camping safaris, while becoming objects of fascination themselves as they perform the role of the ecologically noble savage. The exoticness of a number of these Botswana citizens is, however, rendered familiar and comfortable for tourists through the fact of their whiteness. In this paper, I explore the paradoxes evident within Okavango Delta tourism, with a focus on the ‘familiar exotics’ guiding tourists through landscapes constructed around notions of ‘safe danger’. In making sense of this paradigm, I argue that mimesis is at play within white citizens’ embodiment and commodification of cultural values and practices normatively associated with indigenous peoples. This case demonstrates that within the tourism nexus, the ecologically noble savage trope evident in romanticised global imaginaries of indigeneity has largely failed to empower Botswana’s indigenous Bushmen communities, while perpetuating white privilege.     

Impacts of parasitic plants on natural communities

Parasitic plants have profound effects on the ecosystems in which they occur. They are represented by some 4000 species and can be found in most major biomes. They acquire some or all of their water, carbon and nutrients via the vascular tissue of the host's roots or shoots. Parasitism has major impacts on host growth, allometry and reproduction, which lead to changes in competitive balances between host and nonhost species and therefore affect community structure, vegetation zonation and population dynamics. Impacts on hosts may further affect herbivores, pollinators and seed vectors, and the behaviour and diversity of these is often closely linked to the presence and abundance of parasitic plants. Parasitic plants can therefore be considered as keystone species. Community impacts are mediated by the host range of the parasite (the diversity of species that can potentially act as hosts) and by their preference and selection of particular host species. Parasitic plants can also alter the physical environment around them--including soil water and nutrients, atmospheric CO2 and temperature--and so may also be considered as ecosystem engineers. Such impacts can have further consequences in altering the resource supply to and behaviour of other organisms within parasitic plant communities.     

The Customer Isn't Always Right—Conservation and Animal Welfare Implications of the Increasing Demand for Wildlife Tourism

Tourism accounts for 9% of global GDP and comprises 1.1 billion tourist arrivals per annum. Visits to wildlife tourist attractions (WTAs) may account for 20–40% of global tourism, but no studies have audited the diversity of WTAs and their impacts on the conservation status and welfare of subject animals. We scored these impacts for 24 types of WTA, visited by 3.6–6 million tourists per year, and compared our scores to tourists’ feedback on TripAdvisor. Six WTA types (impacting 1,500–13,000 individual animals) had net positive conservation/welfare impacts, but 14 (120,000–340,000 individuals) had negative conservation impacts and 18 (230,000–550,000 individuals) had negative welfare impacts. Despite these figures only 7.8% of all tourist feedback on these WTAs was negative due to conservation/welfare concerns. We demonstrate that WTAs have substantial negative effects that are unrecognised by the majority of tourists, suggesting an urgent need for tourist education and regulation of WTAs worldwide.     

Novel approach to microbiological air monitoring in show caves

Air microbial pollution in touristic areas poses a risk for both the integrity of an ecosystem and human health. Microbiological monitoring together with environmental parameters monitoring allows for the assessment of the impacts and formulation of sound management decisions to protect humans and ecosystems. Four show caves from the Carpathian Mountains were selected for our study. The caves were sampled monthly to obtain an overview of the changes that occur over a yearly cycle. For the microbial monitoring, we used RIDA^®COUNT test plates, while the environmental parameters were monitored with a variety of devices. Second and third generations of microbes extracted from the plates were grown on specific media for the purpose of 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA extraction and taxa identification. The bacterial communities identified in the air samples in the four investigated show caves were dominated by Staphylococcus, while regarding the fungi communities, Penicillium was more likely to occur in the touristic part of the caves and Cladosporium in the non-visited passages. Together with data on number of visitors, number of bats and radon levels we were able understand the impact of tourists on the cave environment and to generate microbiological risk maps for human health. This type of comprehensive study can be used not only to protect the integrity of a touristic area from the impacts caused by the introduction of allochthonous organic matter, but also for the protection of the tourists and guides from potential pathogenic taxa.     

Habitat fragmentation is associated with dietary shifts and microbiota variability in common vampire bats

Host ecological factors and external environmental factors are known to influence the structure of gut microbial communities, but few studies have examined the impacts of environmental changes on microbiotas in free‐ranging animals. Rapid land‐use change has the potential to shift gut microbial communities in wildlife through exposure to novel bacteria and/or by changing the availability or quality of local food resources. The consequences of such changes to host health and fitness remain unknown and may have important implications for pathogen spillover between humans and wildlife. To better understand the consequences of land‐use change on wildlife microbiotas, we analyzed long‐term dietary trends, gut microbiota composition, and innate immune function in common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) in two nearby sites in Belize that vary in landscape structure. We found that vampire bats living in a small forest fragment had more homogenous diets indicative of feeding on livestock and shifts in microbiota heterogeneity, but not overall composition, compared to those living in an intact forest reserve. We also found that irrespective of sampling site, vampire bats which consumed relatively more livestock showed shifts in some core bacteria compared with vampire bats which consumed relatively less livestock. The relative abundance of some core microbiota members was associated with innate immune function, suggesting that future research should consider the role of the host microbiota in immune defense and its relationship to zoonotic infection dynamics. We suggest that subsequent homogenization of diet and habitat loss through livestock rearing in the Neotropics may lead to disruption to the microbiota that could have downstream impacts on host immunity and cross‐species pathogen transmission.     

The Authentic (In)Authentic: Bushman Anthro‐Tourism

Focusing on tourism ventures that market contact with so‐called bushmen, this paper examines some of the current dynamics and consequences of cultural tourism in Namibia, where the Government has instituted a series of progressive policies to promote local control over tourism development. While notions of primitive cultural otherness continue to feature centrally in tourist demand for contact with “bushmen,” the community‐based and collaborative tourism’ ventures currently being developed in Namibia teach tourists to see their “bushman” hosts as modernizing producers of tourism in their own right, and not just as objects of touristic commodification. Drawing from the anthropological literature on tourism and authenticity, and on the work of Slavoj Zizek on the workings of modern ideology, we argue that such ventures encourage tourists to practise a sort of “meta‐tourism,” in which the authenticity of “traditional bushmen” is replaced by the meta‐authenticity of a tourism experience that thematizes its own effects on the lives of those being visited. For the “bushman” participants in such ventures, we contend, the financial and political benefits of tourism, substantial as they can sometimes be, are ultimately offset by the developmentalist underpinnings of meta‐tourist discourse, which casts “bushmen” as forever not‐quite‐yet fully modern, in perpetual contrast to the tourists who visit them.     

From Private Performance to the Public Stage: Reconsidering ‘Staged Authenticity’ and ‘Traditional’ Performances at the Pasifika Festival

Over the past 60 years, the phenomenal growth of international tourism has been paralleled by the phenomenal growth in festivals held across the world and the increasing academic attention given to understanding them. Performances of culture in tourist settings are often viewed as inauthentic, staged purely for the benefit of tourists. This article contests this enduring perspective, best known through the notion of ‘staged authenticity’. Drawing on research conducted in the diasporic Pacific festival space in New Zealand, this article focuses on how those from within Pacific communities view their performances. Giving agency to the actors allows them to define performances and festivals from an emic perspective, and this challenges the notion of staged authenticity. Rather than material performed purely for the festival and its cultural tourists, performances instead represent a movement of material from largely homogenous community contexts into the multicultural public sphere. Furthermore, the notion of nonlinear temporal relations shows how these performance traditions function contemporaneously, as an important component of the community repertoires from which they come. This in particular challenges the idea that touristic performances represent ‘staged authenticity’. Rather, traditional musics represent one way in which diasporic Pacific communities authentically stage themselves.