The order of meaningful elements in the Japanese verbal complex

This paper explores the order of meaningful elements in the Japanese verbal complex. The ‘verbal complex’ refers to the verbal predicate extended both by affixes and by morphologically independent items in periphrastic constructions, corresponding to auxiliaries in other languages. The main focus in this paper is on the relationship between the order of meaningful elements and semantic scope. It is shown that the order of meaningful elements overwhelmingly obeys semantic scope. Exceptions concern cases with scope ambiguity and cases where surface order is irrelevant because categories do not interact with each other. The study shows that although morphosyntactic restrictions on the combination of meaningful elements exist, these restrictions mostly conform to semantic scope, and where they do not, the restrictions can often be circumvented by the use of alternative constructions with light verbs and formal nouns. As a corollary of the investigation a scopal hierarchy of categories in the Japanese verbal complex is proposed.     

Occurrence of Polysiphonia Epiphytes in Kappaphycus Farms at Calaguas Is., Camarines Norte, Phillippines

This paper describes the occurrence of an epiphyte infestation of Kappaphycus farms in Calaguas Is. Camarines Norte, Philippines. In particular, percentage cover of ‘goose bump’-Polysiphonia and ‘ice-ice’ disease, and some environmental parameters that influence the thallus condition of Kappaphycus alvarezii in Calaguas Is. were assessed during 3 separate visits and are discussed.Commercial cultivation of Kappaphycus at Calaguas Is. began in the early 1990s. After five years of farming, the stock was destroyed by a strong typhoon. The area was re-planted the following year and production increased annually and reached its peak in 1998–1999. However, the following year, the first occurrence of a Polysiphonia epiphyte infestation occurred concurrently with an ‘ice-ice’ disease. Consequently, annual production and the number of seaweed planters declined rapidly, and this situation persists to the present time. This paper highlights the etiological factors and their consequences.Results show that farm-site selection is critical for the success of Kappaphycus production. Characteristics of water movement and light intensity in farming areas contributed to the occurrence and detrimental effect of the phenomenon described as ‘goose bumps’: a morphological distortion of the host seaweed due to the presence of a Polysiphonia sp. epiphyte. A strong inverse correlation was observed between the occurrence of Polysiphonia and water movement: areas with low water motion registered a higher % cover (65%) of Polysiphonia than those in more exposed areas (17%). Although ‘goose bump’-Polysiphonia infestation and ‘ice-ice’ disease pose a tremendous problem to the seaweed farmers, the results of this limited assessment provide a useful baseline for future work.     

Rearing,release and settlement prospect in Italy of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Torymus sinensis</Emphasis>, the biological control agent of the chestnut gall wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dryocosmus kuriphilus</Emphasis>

Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), is one of the most serious pests attacking chestnut trees. Recently it was incidentally introduced into Northwest Italy and it is now spreading throughout Europe. This pest was successfully controlled in Japan by introducing a parasitoid, Torymus sinensis Kamijo (Hymenoptera: Torymidae), from China’s mainland. Following this successful experience, the parasitoid was introduced into Italy from Japan. One year of preliminary studies led to a successful method of rearing imported galls with a synchronization between the parasitoid’s emergence and the presence of the target galls in the field. In two consecutive years, a total of 2,117 individuals were released in several sites covering most of the infested area. There are encouraging data about the settlement of the parasitoid and its synchrony with the host’s cycle: from about 64,000 host galls collected in the field over 200 T. sinensis were reared. The role of native parasitoids associated with the chestnut gall pest in its Italian distribution range is also discussed.     

Responses of lignicolous-agaric fruit-bodies to light and gravity: A study to overview the fruit-body development in hymenomycetes

Our previous study revealed that, when exposed to light from below, fruit-bodies of humus-borne agarics grow straight downward both in the ‘Coprinus Type’ and ’Non-Coprinus Type’ species and that, in the latter, gills tilt by gravitropism, caps swell and wave, and stipes twist. The present study revealed that fruit-bodies of some lignicolous agarics also grew straight downward. Among themFlammulina velutipes andHypsizygus marmoreus fruit-bodies showed almost the same behaviour as the ‘Non-Coprinus Type’, butPleurotus ostreatus (assumedPolyporus Type) fruit-bodies did not show the gill tilting and cap waving. Rather, it redifferentiated to produce new gills or new fruit-bodies, possibly by gravimorphogenesis, or formed spiral stipes. Based on these results, graviresponses in hymenomycetes are overviewed.     

Genetic dissection of root growth in rice (Oryza sativa L.) I: a hydrophonic screen

 Root growth is an important component of the adaptation of rice to drought-prone environments. A hydroponic screen was used to study root growth of 28 rice varieties. Both maximum root length and adventitious root thickness varied widely between varieties. In general, japonica varieties had larger root systems than indica varieties. Two F₂ populations involving the thick- and long-rooted upland japonica variety ‘Azucena’ and two poor-rooting varieties, namely the upland indica‘Bala’ and the Italian japonica‘Maratelli’, were made and screened in hydroponics. Generation means analysis revealed significant additive and dominance main effects for the root length traits with a prevalence of dominance gene effects in both crosses. The dominance×dominance type of non-allelic interactions were important for maximum root length from day 7 to day 28, root volume, root thickness and root cell length in the cross ‘Bala’בAzucena’. The heritability (broad-sense) estimates varied from low to high for the traits and displayed differences between populations. This suggested that recombinant lines with improved root traits can be developed from the two crosses with selection methods that involve some form of progeny evaluation. In a companion paper, we report the mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for root growth traits in the ‘Bala’בAzucena’ population using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). Received: 5 May 1996 / Accepted: 14 February 1997     

Genome mapping of three major resistance genes to woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum Hausm.)

Woolly apple aphid (WAA; Eriosoma lanigerum Hausm.) can be a major economic problem to apple growers in most parts of the world, and resistance breeding provides a sustainable means to control this pest. We report molecular markers for three genes conferring WAA resistance and placing them on two linkage groups (LG) on the genetic map of apple. The Er1 and Er2 genes derived from ‘Northern Spy’ and ‘Robusta 5,’ respectively, are the two major genes that breeders have used to date to improve the resistance of apple rootstocks to this pest. The gene Er3, from ‘Aotea 1’ (an accession classified as Malus sieboldii), is a new major gene for WAA resistance. Genetic markers linked to the Er1 and Er3 genes were identified by screening random amplification of polymorphic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA; RAPD) markers across DNA bulks from resistant and susceptible plants from populations segregating for these genes. The closest RAPD markers were converted into sequence-characterized amplified region markers and the genome location of these two genes was assigned to LG 08 by aligning the maps around the genes with a reference map of ‘Discovery’ using microsatellite markers. The Er2 gene was located on LG 17 of ‘Robusta 5’ using a genetic map developed in a M.9 × ‘Robusta 5’ progeny. Markers for each of the genes were validated for their usefulness for marker-assisted selection in separate populations. The potential use of the genetic markers for these genes in the breeding of apple cultivars with durable resistance to WAA is discussed.     

No Association Between the <Emphasis Type="Italic">LRRK2</Emphasis> G2019S Mutation and Alzheimer’s disease in Italy

Aims Investigation of the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene in late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients to screen for the G2019S mutation, which is common in Parkinson’s cases. Methods High-resolution melting analysis (HRMA) was used to screen a large sample of patients. The target sequence was amplified by standard PCR in the presence of an intercalating fluorescent dye. Heterozygotes were easily identified because the heteroduplexes produced changed the shape of the melting curve. Results In accordance to previous studies, we did not detect the G2019S mutation in any of the 769 Italian AD patients under study. Conclusions HMRA allowed us to rapidly characterize a large number of samples for the LRRK2 G2019S mutation, which results as absent in a large AD data set.     

Steroidal glycoalkaloid content of potato,tomato and their somatic hybrids

Summary Analyses of leaves and ‘tubers’ from somatic hybrids of potato and tomato (‘pomato’ with plastids of potato, ‘topato’ with plastids of tomato) produced by fusion of protoplasts from liquid cultures of dihaploid potato and mesophyll of tomato revealed the presence of the two major potato glycoalkaloids (α-solanine and α-chaconine) as well as the tomato glycoalkaloid (αtomatine). The total alkaloid content of leaves was greater than that of ‘tubers’ and similar to levels in the foliage of parent plants. However, glycoalkaloids were more abundant in hybrid ‘tubers’ than in normal potato tubers by a factor of 5–15. In hybrid foliage, approximately 98% of the alkaloid present was of potato origin whereas in ‘tubers’ the reverse was the case, with tomatine comprising 60–70% of the total alkaloid. The similarities in alkaloid content and ratios between the pomato and the topato lines indicate that plastomes do not influence the biosynthesis and distribution of these alkaloids. The results indicate that major secondary metabolites may prove useful for assessing the hybrid nature of such plants.     

The allelopathic potential ofCoridothymus capitatus L. (Labiatae). Preliminary studies on the roles of the shrub in the inhibition of annuals germination and/or to promote allelopathically active actinomycetes

Summary Suppression of annuals at various intensities was observed around some shrubs ofCoridothymus capitatus growing on kurkar formation in the coastal hills of Israel. The phenomenon was clearly observed as annuals-free belts of 15–20 cm around ‘aggressive’ shrubs. Quantitatively, density of annuals decreased by 16 fold in the annual-free belts as compared to a distance of 60–80 cm from the canopies of the shrubs. Their dry matter was decreased by 5.4 fold around the shrubs. Suppression rate of emergence of planted seeds of annuals (Plantago psyllium andErucaria hispanica) early in the season was 45% higher around ‘aggressive’C. capitatus than that around ‘non-aggressive’ ones. In the laboratory, seed germination of the annuals was strongly suppressed by diffusates and volatiles from shoots, as well as from their water extracts and their essential oils. Incubation of fresh shoots ofC. capitatus in soil collected from around ‘non-aggressive’ shrubs, for 7 days, increased population levels of actinomycetes by 9.6 fold and by 36.7 fold when soil was collected from around ‘aggressive’ shrubs. Isolates of some soil-borne actinomycetes inhibited germination of the test plantsLactuca sativa andAnastatica hierochuntica on agar plates (4–98%). The preliminary results indicate a possible synergistic inhibitory effect induced by essential oils of the aromatic shrub and the phytototic activity of actinomycetes.     

Fluid and particle passage in three duiker species

Ruminants are characterised by two different types of reticulorumen (RR) physiology. ‘Cattle-type’ ruminants have, amongst other features such as RR contents stratification and a heterogenous intraruminal papillation, a distinct difference between the mean retention time (MRT) of small particles and fluids (the ratio is called the selectivity factor, SF). ‘Moose-type’ ruminants have RR contents that are less stratified, a more homogenous intraruminal papillation and low SFs, indicating less difference in the MRT of small particles and fluids. To date, physiological data indicating a ‘moose-type’ physiology have only been measured in giraffids and Odocoilean cervids, raising the question whether it is limited to these taxonomic groups only. Here, we measured MRTs of fluids and particles in five duikers (Bovidae, Cephalophinae) from three species (Sylvicapra grimmia, Cephalophus monticola and Cephalophus sylvicultor) and found SFs in the RR of 1.27 ± 0.18—well within the range of these other browsers. These results are the first physiological indication that a ‘moose-type’ physiology may also occur in bovid species and thus might represent a true convergent adaptation.     

An improved protocol for Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.)

An improved protocol for efficient Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of grapevine (Vitis sp.) was developed through modification of cocultivation and subsequent washing procedures. It was determined that Agrobacterium-infected somatic embryos (SE) cocultivated on filter paper exhibited less browning and significantly higher transient GFP and GUS expression than those cultured on agar-solidified medium. Furthermore, such SE, when subjected to a prolonged washing period in liquid medium containing cefotaxime and carbenicillin, followed by another wash in similar medium with kanamycin added, exhibited significantly higher rates of stable transformation compared to previously-described procedures. Transgenic plant recovery was increased 3.5–6 Xs by careful excision of leafy cotyledons from SE that had been induced to germinate on MS medium containing 1 μM of BA. Southern blot analysis revealed the low copy number integration of transgenes in transgenic plants recovered using the improved protocol. These improved cocultivation and plant recovery procedures have been demonstrated to facilitate production of large populations of transgenic plants from V. vinifera ‘Merlot’, ‘Shiraz’ and ‘Thompson Seedless’ as well as Vitis hybrid ‘Seyval Blanc’.     

An ethnobiological assessment of Rumohra adiantiformis (samambaia-preta) extractivism in Southern Brazil

The fronds of Rumohra adiantiformis, also known as ‘7-weeks-fern,’ ‘leatherleaf’ or ‘samambaia-preta,’ are used worldwide as florists’ greenery. Costa Rica and the USA cultivate and export R. adiantiformis, whereas in South Africa and Brazil this trade is based on extractivism. In Brazil, R. adiantiformis is harvested in the Atlantic Forest biome; 50% of the production comes from the slopes of the ‘Serra Geral’ (state of Rio Grande do Sul), where some 2000 families harvest and trade R. adiantiformis as their main source of revenue. However, harvesting, trading and transporting wild ornamental species is illegal in the Atlantic Forest, This study evaluates R. adiantiformis extractivism in hilly areas of Rio Grande do Sul, from an ethnobotanical/ethnoecological perspective. The study reveals that emic perceptions on the sustainability of R. adiantiformis extractivism are in agreement with relevant ecological data. The regeneration areas on the slopes of the Serra Geral have the highest plant density ever reported for R. adiantiformis; its extractivism has low environment impact and generates significant income for local communities. Further studies of these areas are important in order to support neoextractivism as a suitable form of use of the state's biodiversity.     

A comparison of the three isoforms of the light-harvesting complex II using transient absorption and time-resolved fluorescence measurements

In this article we report the characterization of the energy transfer process in the reconstituted isoforms of the plant light-harvesting complex II. Homotrimers of recombinant Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 and monomers of Lhcb3 were compared to native trimeric complexes. We used low-intensity femtosecond transient absorption (TA) and time-resolved fluorescence measurements at 77 K and at room temperature, respectively, to excite the complexes selectively in the chlorophyll b absorption band at 650 nm with 80 fs pulses and on the high-energy side of the chlorophyll a absorption band at 662 nm with 180 fs pulses. The subsequent kinetics was probed at 30–35 different wavelengths in the region from 635 to 700 nm. The rate constants for energy transfer were very similar, indicating that structurally the three isoforms are highly homologous and that probably none of them play a more significant role in light-harvesting and energy transfer. No signature has been found in the transient absorption measurements at 77 K for Lhcb3 which might suggest that this protein acts as a relative energy sink of the excitations in heterotrimers of Lhcb1/Lhcb2/Lhcb3. Minor differences in the amplitudes of some of the rate constants and in the absorption and fluorescence properties of some pigments were observed, which are ascribed to slight variations in the environment surrounding some of the chromophores depending on the isoform. The decay of the fluorescence was also similar for the three isoforms and multi-exponential, characterized by two major components in the ns regime and a minor one in the ps regime. In agreement with previous transient absorption measurements on native LHC II complexes, Chl b → Chl a energy transfer exhibited very fast channels but at the same time a slow component (ps). The Chls absorbing at around 660 nm exhibited both fast energy transfer which we ascribe to transfer from ‘red’ Chl b towards ‘red’ Chl a and slow transfer from ‘blue’ Chl a towards ‘red’ Chl a. The results are discussed in the context of the new available atomic models for LHC II.     

Parasitism ofLeptinotarsa decemlineata [Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae] byEdovum puttleri [Hymenoptera: Eulophidae] in different cultivars of eggplant

Experiments were conducted to quantify parasitism of Colorado potato beetle,Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), by the egg parasitoid,Edovum puttleri Grissell, on 3 different cultivars of eggplant,Solanum melongena L. Levels of parasitism were higher (P<0.05) on ‘Black Pride’ than on other cultivars. The percentage of egg masses that were parasitized was 1.2-fold higher (P<0.05) on ‘Black Pride’ than on ‘Harris Special’ and ‘White’. The number of eggs per mass that were parasitized was 1.3- and 1.4- fold greater (P<0.05) on ‘Black Pride’ than on ‘Harris Special’ and ‘White’, respectively. The percentage of eggs that were parasitized per mass and percentage of emerged adult parasitoids did not differ (P>0.05) among cultivars; between 2.1- to 2.6- fold more females than males emerged from eggs on all cultivars during the growing season.Edovum puttleri suppressed the 2nd generation ofL. decemlineata on ‘Black Pride’ and ‘Harris Special’, but did not suppress populations on ‘White’.      

AFLP analysis of nephthytis (Syngonium podophyllum Schott) selected from somaclonal variants

This study analyzed genetic differences of 19 cultivars selected from somaclonal variants of Syngonium podophyllum Schott along with their parents as well as seven additional Syngonium species and six other aroids using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers generated by 12 primer sets. Among the 19 somaclonal cultivars, ‘Pink Allusion’ was selected from ‘White Butterfly’. Tissue culture of ‘Pink Allusion’ through organogenesis resulted in the development of 13 additional cultivars. Self-pollination of ‘Pink Allusion’ obtained a cultivar, ‘Regina Red Allusion’, and tissue culture propagation of ‘Regina Red Allusion’ led to the release of five other cultivars. The 12 primer sets generated a total of 1,583 scorable fragments from all accessions, of which 1,284 were polymorphic (81.9%). The percentages of polymorphic fragments within ‘White Butterfly’ and ‘Regina Red Allusion’ groups, however, were only 1.2% and 0.4%, respectively. Jaccard's similarity coefficients among somaclonal cultivars derived from ‘White Butterfly’ and ‘Regina Red Allusion’, on average, were 0.98 and 0.99, respectively. Seven out of the 15 cultivars from the ‘White Butterfly’ group and three out of six from the ‘Regina Red Allusion’ group were clearly distinguished by AFLP analysis as unique fragments were associated with respective cultivars. The unsuccessful attempt to distinguish the remaining eight cultivars from the ‘White Butterfly’ group and three from the ‘Regina Red Allusion’ group was not attributed to experimental errors or the number of primer sets used; rather it is hypothesized to be caused by DNA methylation and/or some rare mutations. This study also calls for increased genetic diversity of cultivated Syngonium as they are largely derived from somaclonal variants.     

The niche of the potto,Perodicticus potto

Some new field observations on West African pottos are presented and compared with previously published information on substrate use and diet. This evidence suggests that the predominant means by which pottos find food is by carefully searching branches in the forest canopy with their noses and that gums and slow-moving invertebrates found on branch surfaces are major components of their diet. When fruits are scarce, gums may be the potto’s chief source of energy. It is argued that the potto’s deliberate locomotion and some of its anatomical peculiarities are related primarily to this diet and foraging behavior, rather than to concealment from predators or the capture of birds, two factors previously suggested to have been important in the evolution of the potto’s locomotor technique. The potto’s niche is compared to that of other lorisid primates and is found to resemble closely that of Galago crassicaudatusin several respects.