Transient expression of the β-glucuronidase gene in tissues ofArabidopsis thaliana by bombardment-mediated transformation

Particle bombardment has proved to be useful for the transformation of plants. We have previously reported successful transient expression of the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene in cultured plant cells and tissues and the stable transformation of various plants using a pneumatic particle gun. In this chapter, we describe transient expression of the GUS gene in Arabidopsis thaliana leaves and roots using the pneumatic particle gun.     

Analysis of T-DNA-mediated translational β-glucuronidase gene fusions

Three random translational -glucuronidase (gus) gene fusions were previously obtained in Arabidopsis thaliana, using Agrobacterium-mediated transfer of a gus coding sequence without promoter and ATG initiation site. These were analysed by IPCR amplification of the sequence upstream of gus and nucleotide sequence analysis. In one instance, the gus sequence was fused, in inverse orientation, to the nos promoter sequence of a truncated tandem T-DNA copy and translated from a spurious ATG in this sequence. In the second transgenic line, the gus gene was fused to A. thaliana DNA, 27 bp downstream an ATG. In this line, a large deletion occurred at the target site of the T-DNA. In the third line, gus is fused in frame to a plant DNA sequence after the eighth codon of an open reading frame encoding a protein of 619 amino acids. This protein has significant homology with animal and plant (receptor) serine/threonine protein kinases. The twelve subdomains essential for kinase activity are conserved. The presence of a potential signal peptide and a membrane-spanning domain suggests that it may be a receptor kinase. These data confirm that plant genes can be tagged as functional translational gene fusions.     

Non-destructive assay systems for detection of β-glucuronidase activity in higher plants

β-glucuronidase (GUS) can be qualitatively assayed in seedlings and fully grown plants without injury or irreversible damage by short term incubations in X-gluc or by spraying 4-MUG.     

Plant endogenous β-glucuronidase activity: how to avoid interference with the use of theE. coli β-glucuronidase as a reporter gene in transgenic plants

We have detected a plant β-glucuronidase activity, present in several tissues and organs of plant species belonging to different families. The fluorimetric β-glucuronidase assay was used to partially characterize this activity in post-ribosomal supernatants of tobacco leaves. The tobacco activity is very stable at low temperatures, but quickly inactivated above 45°C. It is relatively resistant to proteases and insensitive to-SH group reagents and to ionic conditions. It does not require, nor is it inhibited by, divalent cations. Although these properties are shared by theEscherichia coli β-glucuronidase, the two activities can be distinguished by: (i) their different sensitivity to the specific inhibitor saccharic acid-1,4-lactone; (ii) their different thermal stability (iii) their different pH optima (5.0 for the plant activity and close to neutral for the bacterial enzyme). Therefore, under appropriate experimental conditions, it should be possible to assay theE. coli β-glucuronidase in transgenic plants without interference from the endogenous plant activity.     

Biotransformation of dehydroepiandrosterone with Macrophomina phaseolina and β-glucuronidase inhibitory activity of transformed products

The biotransformation of dehydroepiandrosterone (1) with Macrophomina phaseolina was investigated. A total of eight metabolites were obtained which were characterized as androstane-3,17-dione (2), androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (3), androst-4-ene-17β-ol-3-one (4), androst-4,6-diene-17β-ol-3-one (5), androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol (6), androst-4-ene-3β-ol-6,17-dione (7), androst-4-ene-3β,7β,17β?triol (8), and androst-5-ene-3β,7α,17β-triol (9). All the transformed products were screened for enzyme inhibition, among which four were found to inhibit the β-glucuronidase enzyme, while none inhibited the α-chymotrypsin enzyme.     

Biotransformation of dehydroepiandrosterone with Macrophomina phaseolina and β-glucuronidase inhibitory activity of transformed products

The biotransformation of dehydroepiandrosterone (1) with Macrophomina phaseolina was investigated. A total of eight metabolites were obtained which were characterized as androstane-3,17-dione (2), androst-4-ene-3,17-dione (3), androst-4-ene-17β-ol-3-one (4), androst-4,6-diene-17β-ol-3-one (5), androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol (6), androst-4-ene-3β-ol-6,17-dione (7), androst-4-ene-3β,7β,17β-triol (8), and androst-5-ene-3β,7α,17β-triol (9). All the transformed products were screened for enzyme inhibition, among which four were found to inhibit the β-glucuronidase enzyme, while none inhibited the α-chymotrypsin enzyme.     

Detection of endogenous β-glucuronidase activity in Aspergillus niger

 An endogenous β-glucuronidase that hydrolyses the chromogenic substrate 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-glucuronide (X-gluc) in Aspergillus niger is reported. The activity was induced when the fungus was grown in media containing xylan, but was either very low, or absent, when grown on glucose. Endogenous β-glucuronidase was primarily located in newly formed hyphae, and was apparent at pH values between 3 and 6. Hydrolysis of X-gluc was sensitive to the inhibitor D-saccharic acid 1,4-lactone and was irreversibly inactivated by heating. The bacterial uidAβ-glucuronidase reporter gene was strongly expressed in the hyphae of transformed A. niger but, in contrast to the endogenous activity, the enzyme was also active at pH 7–8.5. Histochemical localization of uidA expression in A. niger, without interference from the endogenous β-glucuronidase activity, was achieved by staining at this pH. Received : 22 March 1995/Received last revision : 17 August 1995/Accepted : 22 August 1995     

Histochemical demonstration of β-glucuronidase activity during sequential molar development in the Swiss albino mouse

Summary Using naphthol AS-BI -D glucuronide as a substrate and diazotized pararosanilin as a coupling reagent, the distribution of -glucuronidase was studied throughout mouse molar tooth development. A strongly positive reaction was not only observed in some of the cellular components of the stellate reticulum of the enamel organ, but also in certain cells of the subodontoblastic cell zone. A moderate reaction was noted in the distal cytoplasm of the odontoblasts particularly in the older ones which were found in the cuspal areas. A mild reaction was elicited in the stratum intermedium and a weak one in the ameloblasts and prospective dental pulp.Supported PHS. Grant No. 2800-02 National Institute of Dental Research. National Institutes of Health.     

Biotransformation of dianabol with the filamentous fungi and β-glucuronidase inhibitory activity of resulting metabolites

Biotransformation of the anabolic steroid dianabol (1) by suspended-cell cultures of the filamentous fungi Cunninghamella elegans and Macrophomina phaseolina was studied. Incubation of 1 with C. elegans yielded five hydroxylated metabolites 2–6, while M. phaseolina transformed compound 1 into polar metabolites 7–11. These metabolites were identified as 6β,17β-dihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (2), 15α,17β-dihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (3), 11α,17β-dihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (4), 6β,12β,17β-trihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (5), 6β,15α,17β-trihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (6), 17β-hydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3,6-dione (7), 7β,17β,-dihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (8), 15β,17β-dihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (9), 17β-hydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3,11-dione (10), and 11β,17β-dihydroxy-17α-methylandrost-1,4-dien-3-one (11). Metabolite 3 was also transformed chemically into diketone 12 and oximes 13, and 14. Compounds 6 and 12–14 were identified as new derivatives of dianabol (1). The structures of all transformed products were deduced on the basis of spectral analyses. Compounds 1–14 were evaluated for β-glucuronidase enzyme inhibitory activity. Compounds 7, 13, and 14 showed a strong inhibition of β-glucuronidase enzyme, with IC₅₀ values between 49.0 and 84.9 μM.     

Tomato prosystemin promoter confers wound-inducible, vascular bundle-specific expression of the β-glucuronidase gene in transgenic tomato plants

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Better Boy) plants were transformed with a fused gene containing a 2.2-kb promoter fragment of the tomato prosystemin gene and the coding region of the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene. The transgenic plants exhibited a low constitutive level of prosystemin-β-glucuronidase gene expression, assayed by histochemical staining and GUS enzyme activity, that was associated in the vascular bundles of leaf main veins, petiolules, petioles and stems. The GUS activity in the vascular bundles in each tissue was increased by wounding and by treatment of the plants with methyl jasmonate, similar to the induction of prosystemin in wild-type plants. The increase in GUS activity in the vascular bundles of leaves in response to wounding correlated with the wound-inducible increase in prosystemin mRNA. Tissue printing, using rabbit anti-serum prepared against prosystemin, confirmed that inducible prosystemin protein was localized in vascular bundles of petiolules, petioles and stems of wild-type tomato plants. The evidence indicates that the 2.2-kb promoter region of the tomato prosystemin gene contains elements conferring its correct temporal and spatial expression in the vascular bundles of transgenic tomato plants. Received: 7 January 1997 / Accepted: 2 April 1997     

Over-expression of Arabidopsis thaliana β-carotene hydroxylase (chyB) gene enhances drought tolerance in transgenic tobacco

Carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis and photoprotection in plant life. In order to study the protective role of zeaxanthin under drought stress, we increased the capacity for its accumulation in tobacco by over-expression of Arabidopsis β-carotene hydroxylase chyB gene. This manipulation leads to a 2–4 fold increase of xanthophylls cycle pigments. Under high-light condition, the transformants converted more β-carotene into zeaxanthin compared to the controls. The enhancement of zeaxanthin increased the total antioxidant capacity in lipid phase and made plants more tolerant to drought stress, as shown by less leaf necrosis, reduced lipid peroxidation and enhanced photosynthesis rate. The function of the gene in drought tolerance was explored and discussed. We conclude that genetic manipulation of chyB gene may present a powerful method in the production of drought-tolerant crops.     

Stable transformation of Sorghum bicolor protoplasts with chimeric neomycin phosphotransferase II and β-glucuronidase genes

Summary Parameters influencing the stable transformation of Sorghum bicolor protoplasts with a chimeric neomycin phosphotransferase II (NPT II) gene by electroporation were investigated. The mean number of kanamycin-resistant calli produced increased in direct proportion to the concentration of DNA used for transformation. Linearization of the plasmid doubled the mean number of kanamycin-resistant calli produced, while the addition of carrier DNA had no effect. The copy number (1–4) of integrated genes was low compared with that frequently reported for PEG-mediated transformation. Two strategies for transforming protoplasts with a nonselectable, -glucuronidase (GUS) gene were compared. One utilized a plasmid containing a CaMV 35S-NPT II gene covalently linked to a CaMV 35S-GUS gene, and the other strategy utilized the two genes on separate plasmids. DNA from all 77 kanamycin-resistant calli analyzed contained restriction fragments hybridizing to the NPT II probe; approximately 70% of the clones from all transformation treatments contained a 1.7-kb EcoRI/HindIII restriction fragment corresponding to the full-length gene. Of the kanamycin-resistant calli, 38–63% (depending on the transformation treatment) contained GUS-hybridizing fragments, and 8–19% contained the full-length gene. The addition of NPT II and GUS genes on a single plasmid or on separate plasmids did not appear to lead to an appreciable difference in the frequency of cointegration of these genes, although an increased proportion of the plasmid bearing the nonselectable (GUS) gene appeared to favor its cointegration.     

The expression of β-glucuronidase during preimplantation development of mouse embryos

β-Glucuronidase activity was measured in mouse embryos during the preimplantation period of development by using a microfluorometric assay. A 100-fold increase in activity was observed between 57 (8-cell stage) and 84 hr (morulae) of development. Activity changes between 30 and 60 hr were also significant. Genetic variants of β-glucuronidase occur between the strains of mice $\text{C57BL}\text{6J}$ and $\text{C3H}\text{HeJ}$ which differ in levels of activity and heat denaturation kinetics. Activity changes and heat denaturation kinetics of β-glucuronidase in $\text{C57BL}\text{6}\text{,}\text{C3H}\text{HeJ}$ and F₁ hybrid embryos were compared, and it was demonstrated that paternal genes were expressed during the 100-fold increase in activity and that embryonic genes may be functioning between 30 and 60 hr of development.     

Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of chickpea with α-amylase inhibitor gene for insect resistance

Chickpea is the world’s third most important pulse crop and India produces 75% of the world’s supply. Chickpea seeds are attacked byCallosobruchus maculatus andC. chinensis which cause extensive damage. The α-amylase inhibitor gene isolated fromPhaseolus vulgaris seeds was introduced into chickpea cultivar K850 throughAgrobacterium- mediated transformation. A total of 288 kanamycin resistant plants were regenerated. Only 0.3% of these were true transformants. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis and Southern hybridization confirmed the presence of 4.9 kb α-amylase inhibitor gene in the transformed plants. Western blot confirmed the presence of α-amylase inhibitor protein. The results of bioassay study revealed a significant reduction in the survival rate of bruchid weevilC. maculatus reared on transgenic chickpea seeds. All the transgenic plants exhibited a segregation ratio of 3:1.     

β-glucuronidase as a marker for clonal analysis of tomato lateral roots

In higher plants, the root-shoot axis established during embryogenesis is extended and modified by the development of primary and lateral apical meristems. While the structure of several shoot apical meristems has been deduced by combining histological studies with clonal analysis, the application of this approach to root apical meristems has been limited by a lack of visible genetic markers. We have tested the feasibility of using a synthetic gene consisting of the maize transposable elementActivator (Ac) inserted between a 35S CaMV promoter and the coding region of a -glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene as a means of marking cell lineages in roots. The GUS gene was activated in individual cells byAc excision, and the resulting sectors of GUS-expressing cells were detected with the histochemical stain X-Gluc. Sectors in lateral roots originated from bothAc excision in meristematic cells and from parent root sectors that bisect the founder cell population for the lateral root initial. Analysis of root tip sectors confirmed that the root cap, and root proper have separate initials. Large sectors in the body of the lateral root encompassed both cortex and vascular tissues. The number of primary initial cells predicted from the size and arrangement of the sectors observed ranged from two to four and appeared to vary between roots. We conclude that transposon-based clonal analysis using GUS expression as a genetic marker is an effective approach for deducing the functional organization of root apical meristems.     

Analysis of leaky viral translation termination codons in vivo by transient expression of improved β-glucuronidase vectors

Plant RNA viruses commonly exploit leaky translation termination signals in order to express internal protein coding regions. As a first step to elucidate the mechanism(s) by which ribosomes bypass leaky stop codons in vivo, we have devised a system in which readthrough is coupled to the transient expression of -glucuronidase (GUS) in tobacco protoplasts. GUS vectors that contain the stop codons and surrounding nucleotides from the readthrough regions of several different RNA viruses were constructed and the plasmids were tested for the ability to direct transient GUS expression. These studies indicated that ribosomes bypass the leaky termination sites at efficiencies ranging from essentially 0 to ca. 5% depending upon the viral sequence. The results suggest that the efficiency of readthrough is determined by the sequence surrounding the stop codon. We describe improved GUS expression vectors and optimized transfection conditions which made it possible to assay low-level translational events.