A Key Role for the Urokinase Plasminogen Activator (uPA) in Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infection

Recruitment of the serine protease plasmin is central to the pathogenesis of many bacterial species, including Group A streptococcus (GAS), a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. A key process in invasive GAS disease is the ability to accumulate plasmin at the cell surface, however the role of host activators of plasminogen in this process is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) contributes to plasmin recruitment and subsequent invasive disease initiation in vivo. In the absence of a source of host plasminogen activators, streptokinase (Ska) was required to facilitate cell surface plasmin acquisition by GAS. However, in the absence of Ska, host activators were sufficient to promote cell surface plasmin acquisition by GAS strain 5448 during incubation with plasminogen or human plasma. Furthermore, GAS were able mediate a significant increase in the activation of zymogen pro-uPA in human plasma. In order to assess the contribution of uPA to invasive GAS disease, a previously undescribed transgenic mouse model of infection was employed. Both C57/black 6J, and AlbPLG1 mice expressing the human plasminogen transgene, were significantly more susceptible to invasive GAS disease than uPA−/− mice. The observed decrease in virulence in uPA−/−mice was found to correlate directly with a decrease in bacterial dissemination and reduced cell surface plasmin accumulation by GAS. These findings have significant implications for our understanding of GAS pathogenesis, and research aimed at therapeutic targeting of plasminogen activation in invasive bacterial infections.     

Potent,orally bioavailable,liver-selective stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) inhibitors

Two structurally distinct series of SCD (Δ9 desaturase) inhibitors (1 and 2) have been previously reported by our group. In the present work, we merged the structural features of the two series. This led to the discovery of compound 5b (CVT-12,012) which is highly potent in a human cell-based (HEPG2) SCD assay (IC₅₀ = 6 nM). This compound has 78% oral bioavailability in rats and is preferentially distributed into liver (76 times vs plasma) with relatively low brain penetration. In a five-day study (sucrose fed rats) compound 5b significantly reduced SCD activity in a dose-dependent manner as determined by GC analysis of fatty acid composition in plasma and liver, and significantly reduced liver triglycerides versus the control group (～50%).     

Tristetraprolin Inhibits the Growth of Human Glioma Cells through Downregulation of Urokinase Plasminogen Activator/Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Receptor mRNAs

Urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) play a major role in the infiltrative growth of glioblastoma. Downregulatoion of the uPA and uPAR has been reported to inhibit the growth glioblastoma. Here, we demonstrate that tristetraprolin (TTP) inhibits the growth of U87MG human glioma cells through downregulation of uPA and uPAR. Our results show that expression level of TTP is inversely correlated with those of uPA and uPAR in human glioma cells and tissues. TTP binds to the AU-rich elements within the 3′ untranslated regions of uPA and uPAR and overexpression of TTP decreased the expression of uPA and uPAR through enhancing the degradation of their mRNAs. In addition, overexpression of TTP inhibited the growth and invasion of U87MG cells. Our findings implicate that TTP can be used as a promising therapeutic target to treat human glioma.     

重组尿激酶型纤溶酶原激活物受体在酵母系统中的表达及鉴定

构建截断型可溶性尿激酶型纤溶酶原激活物受体（ｕ－ＰＡＲ）的原核及酵母表达质粒并分别在大肠杆菌和Ｐｉｃｈｉａｐａｓｔｏｒｉｓ酵母中高效表达．利用ＰＣＲ扩增截断型可溶性ｕ－ＰＡＲｃＤＮＡ片段,并分别连入酵母及原核表达载体中,构建成表达质粒．后者经诱导表达的蛋白被用于免疫家兔,获得抗ｕ－ＰＡＲ的抗血清,用于对酵母表达产物的鉴定．前者在甲醇的诱导下表达,产物分泌至培养液中．结果表明,原核表达的ｕ－ＰＡＲ蛋白免疫家兔后获得高效价的抗血清,利用此抗血清所作Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎｂｌｏｔ证实酵母表达蛋白具有ｕ－ＰＡＲ的免疫原性,表观分子量４０ｋＤ左右．Ｍｕｔ－表型在第５ｄ为最高（２．５μｇ／ｍｌ）,Ｍｕｔ＋表型在第４ｄ为最高（７．５μｇ／ｍｌ）．因此,构建的可溶性ｕ－ＰＡＲ表达质粒在Ｐｉｃｈｉａｐａｓｔｏｒｉｓ酵母细胞获得表达,为进一步竞争拮抗受体功能的研究奠定了基础．     

Acyclic, orally bioavailable ketone-based cathepsin K inhibitors

Starting from a potent ketone-based inhibitor with poor drug properties, incorporation of P(2)-P(3) elements from a ketoamide-based inhibitor led to the identification of a hybrid series of ketone-based cathepsin K inhibitors with better oral bioavailability than the starting ketone.     

Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Receptor (uPAR) and Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) Are Potential Predictive Biomarkers in Early Stage Oral Squamous Cell Carcinomas (OSCC)

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is often associated with metastatic disease and a poor 5 year survival rate. Patients diagnosed with small tumours generally have a more favourable outcome, but some of these small tumours are aggressive and lead to early death. To avoid harmful overtreatment of patients with favourable prognosis, there is a need for predictive biomarkers that can be used for treatment stratification. In this study we assessed the possibility to use components of the plasminogen activator (PA) system as prognostic markers for OSCC outcome and compared this to the commonly used biomarker Ki-67. A tissue-micro-array (TMA) based immunohistochemical analysis of primary tumour tissue obtained from a North Norwegian cohort of 115 patients diagnosed with OSCC was conducted. The expression of the biomarkers was compared with clinicopathological variables and disease specific death. The statistical analyses revealed that low expression of uPAR (p = 0.031) and PAI-1 (p = 0.021) in the tumour cells was significantly associated with low disease specific death in patients with small tumours and no lymph node metastasis (T1N0). The commonly used biomarker, Ki-67, was not associated with disease specific death in any of the groups of patients analysed. The conclusion is that uPAR and PAI-1 are potential predictive biomarkers in early stage tumours and that this warrants further studies on a larger cohort of patients.     

The Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Receptor Promotes Efferocytosis of Apoptotic Cells

The urokinase receptor (uPAR), expressed on the surface of many cell types, coordinates plasmin-mediated cell surface proteolysis for matrix remodeling and promotes cell adhesion by acting as a binding protein for vitronectin. There is great clinical interest in uPAR in the cancer field as numerous reports have demonstrated that up-regulation of the uPA system is correlated with malignancy of various carcinomas. Using both stable cell lines overexpressing uPAR and transient gene transfer, here we provide evidence for a non-reported role of uPAR in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, a process that has recently been termed efferocytosis. When uPAR was expressed in human embryonic kidney cells, hamster melanoma cells, or breast cancer cells (BCCs), there was a robust enhancement in the efferocytosis of apoptotic cells. uPAR-expressing cells failed to stimulate engulfment of viable cells, suggesting that uPAR enhances recognition of one or more determinant on the surface of the apoptotic cell. uPAR-mediated engulfment was not inhibited by expression of mutant β5 integrin, nor was αvβ5 integrin-mediated engulfment modulated by cleavage of uPAR by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. Further, we found that the more aggressive BCCs had a higher phagocytic capacity that correlated with uPAR expression and cleavage of membrane-associated uPAR in MDA-MB231 BCCs significantly impaired phagocytic activity. Because efferocytosis is critical for the resolution of inflammation and production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, overexpression of uPAR in tumor cells may promote a tolerogenic microenvironment that favors tumor progression.The urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR³ or CD87) is a multidomain glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein (1) implicated in many cellular processes, ranging from wound repair, inflammation, motility, tumor invasion, to metastasis (2–6). Although the best understood functions of uPAR lie in its ability to act as a saturable receptor for urokinase (uPA) resulting in plasminogen activation and subsequent pericellular proteolysis and matrix remodeling (7, 8), its ability to regulate cell adhesion and migration acting as a vitronectin (VN) receptor is likely equally important (9, 10). The human uPAR cDNA encodes a 335-amino acid polypeptide that undergoes extensive post-translational glycosylation upon cell sorting through the secretory pathways, and the mature protein is covalently attached to the plasma membrane via a C-terminally modified GPI anchor (11, 12). Because uPAR lacks a trans-membrane domain, the signal transduction originating from this receptor, at least at the plasma membrane, requires lateral interactions with co-receptors. In this capacity, a wide range of surface proteins have been implicated as uPAR co-receptors, including integrins (13, 14), receptor tyrosine kinases (15), G-protein-coupled receptors (16), chemokine receptors (17, 18), and low density lipoprotein receptors (19). This not only allows for increased signal complexity, but also co-localizes uPAR with a number of diverse extracellular ligands within the extracellular environment (20, 21).In addition to the physiological roles in tissue remodeling, numerous studies have reported up-regulation of both uPAR and uPA/tissue plasminogen activator in malignant carcinomas (22–26). In both knockout and transgenic mouse models, overexpression of either uPAR or uPA is associated with enhanced metastasis and poor survival, and efforts aimed at inhibiting the protease activation of uPA are considered promising therapeutic strategies (27). Paradoxically, however, expression of the primary inhibitors of endogenous uPA, the type-1 plasminogen activator inhibitors (28), also correlate with poor prognoses in cancer patients (29, 30), suggesting there may be non-proteolysis-mediated uPAR activation events (31). Indeed, uPAR is a saturable receptor for VN, which binds this ligand in an RGD-independent manner via the somatomedin-B domain (14). The structures of the extracellular domains of uPAR in complexes with peptide substrates of either uPA or VN reveal these proteins bind to overlapping but clearly distinct domains in uPAR (32, 33), although all three domains in uPAR (D1, D2, and D3) are required for binding. Binding of VN to uPAR induces alterations in the actin cytoskeleton, cell shape changes, and activation of signaling pathways (ERK, FAK, and Rac1) that favor cell migration (34). These data suggest that uPAR can modify integrin function that lead to enhanced matrix binding, adhesion and migration, and cell signaling.In the present study, we have found that uPAR has a strong ability to promote efferocytosis of apoptotic cells. This was demonstrated using transient overexpression and creation of stable cell lines, as well as inhibitors of uPAR function. Expression of uPAR promoted engulfment of apoptotic T cells (CEM-1 and Jurkat cell lines), but not viable T cells, and this effect was abrogated using phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C to cleave the GPI anchor of uPAR. Because uPAR and β5-integrin cooperate to promote migration and metastasis in breast cancer cells (BCCs), and both uPAR and β5-integrin are often elevated in metastatic cancers, we also investigated whether BCCs might have acquired greater phagocytic ability and investigated whether uPAR might regulate the process of β5-integrin-mediated phagocytosis. Interestingly, we found that BCCs that natively overexpress uPAR had significantly increased phagocytic capacity compared with less transformed or non-transformed epithelial cells. Surprisingly, although uPAR expression modified the expression and distribution of αvβ5 integrins, we discovered that uPAR apparently mediates phagocytosis independently of αvβ5 or αvβ3 integrins. The studies presented here reveal a novel function of uPAR in the uptake of apoptotic cells.     

Identification of non-amidine inhibitors of acid-sensing ion channel-3 (ASIC3)

A series of benzothiophene methyl amines were examined in an effort to identify non-amidine chemotypes with reduced polypharmacology from existing leads with the goal of finding potent ASIC3 channel blockers to advance the therapeutic evaluation of ASIC3 inhibition.     

Lead optimization of purine based orally bioavailable Mps1 (TTK) inhibitors

Efforts to optimize biological activity, novelty, selectivity and oral bioavailability of Mps1 inhibitors, from a purine based lead MPI-0479605, are described in this Letter. Mps1 biochemical activity and cytotoxicity in HCT-116 cell line were improved. On-target activity confirmation via mechanism based G2/M escape assay was demonstrated. Physico-chemical and ADME properties were optimized to improve oral bioavailability in mouse.     

Dispase-Mediated Basal Detachment of Cultured Keratinocytes Induces Urokinase-type Plasminogen Activator (uPA) and Its Receptor (uPA-R, CD87)

Keratinocytes synthesize and secrete urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), which is bound in an autocrine manner to a specific receptor (uPA-R, CD87) at their surface. Plasminogen, which is also bound to membrane binding sites, is readily activated by uPA-R-bound uPA. Thus, plasmin for proteolysis of pericullular glycoproteins is provided. While uPA-R and uPA are at low to undetectable levels in keratinocytes of the normal epidermis, both compounds are upregulated in migrating keratinocytes during reepithelialization of epidermal defects and in affected keratinocytes of various epidermal disorders, including bullous dermatoses. We have hypothesized that the disturbance of cell/matrix interactions—a common feature of these diverse pathological situations—induces uPA/uPA-R. Accordingly, we explored whether the dispase-mediated detachment of cultured keratinocytes, which have formed a multilayered epidermis-like structurein vitro,induced uPA and uPA-R. We found increases in uPA secretion, cell-associated uPA activity, and uPA- and uPA-R-antigen in keratinocytes upon dispase-mediated detachment from their growth substratum. The increase was preceded by an increase in uPA-R- and uPA-specific mRNA, which was not observed when the proteinase inhibitor phosphoramidon was added together with dispase. In conclusion, we present evidence that experimental detachment with dispase provides signals for the concomitant upregulation of uPA-R and uPA. The findings support the hypothesis that cell/matrix interactions may influence the expression of the cell surface-associated PA system in human keratinocytes.     

Optimization of orally bioavailable alkyl amine renin inhibitors

Structure-guided drug design led to new alkylamine renin inhibitors with improved in vitro and in vivo potency. Lead compound 21a, has an IC₅₀ of 0.83 nM for the inhibition of human renin in plasma (PRA). Oral administration of 21a at 10 mg/kg resulted in >20 h reduction of blood pressure in a double transgenic rat model of hypertension.     

Tumour Microenvironments Induce Expression of Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Receptor (uPAR) and Concomitant Activation of Gelatinolytic Enzymes

Background

The urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) is associated with poor prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), and increased expression of uPAR is often found at the invasive tumour front. The aim of the current study was to elucidate the role of uPAR in invasion and metastasis of OSCC, and the effects of various tumour microenvironments in these processes. Furthermore, we wanted to study whether the cells’ expression level of uPAR affected the activity of gelatinolytic enzymes.

Methods

The Plaur gene was both overexpressed and knocked-down in the murine OSCC cell line AT84. Tongue and skin tumours were established in syngeneic mice, and cells were also studied in an ex vivo leiomyoma invasion model. Soluble factors derived from leiomyoma tissue, as well as purified extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, were assessed for their ability to affect uPAR expression, glycosylation and cleavage. Activity of gelatinolytic enzymes in the tissues were assessed by in situ zymography.

Results

We found that increased levels of uPAR did not induce tumour invasion or metastasis. However, cells expressing low endogenous levels of uPAR in vitro up-regulated uPAR expression both in tongue, skin and leiomyoma tissue. Various ECM proteins had no effect on uPAR expression, while soluble factors originating from the leiomyoma tissue increased both the expression and glycosylation of uPAR, and possibly also affected the proteolytic processing of uPAR. Tumours with high levels of uPAR, as well as cells invading leiomyoma tissue with up-regulated uPAR expression, all displayed enhanced activity of gelatinolytic enzymes.

Conclusions

Although high levels of uPAR are not sufficient to induce invasion and metastasis, the activity of gelatinolytic enzymes was increased. Furthermore, several tumour microenvironments have the capacity to induce up-regulation of uPAR expression, and soluble factors in the tumour microenvironment may have an important role in the regulation of posttranslational modification of uPAR.     

Identification of novel, orally bioavailable spirohydantoin CGRP receptor antagonists

A rapid analogue approach to identification of spirohydantoin-based CGRP antagonists provided novel, low molecular weight leads. Modification of these leads afforded a series of nanomolar benzimidazolinone-based CGRP receptor antagonists. The oral bioavailability of these antagonists was inversely correlated with polar surface area, suggesting that membrane permeability was a key limitation to absorption. Optimization provided compound 12, a potent CGRP receptor antagonist (K_i = 21 nM) with good oral bioavailability in three species.     

Novel, potent, selective, and orally bioavailable human betaII-tryptase inhibitors

The synthesis of novel [1,2,4]oxadiazoles and their structure-activity relationship (SAR) for the inhibition of tryptase and related serine proteases is presented. Elaboration of the P'-side afforded potent, selective, and orally bioavailable tryptase inhibitors.     

Soluble Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Receptor as a Marker for Use of Antidepressants

Objectives

Inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of depression. A few cross-sectional population-based studies have found that depression is associated with increased levels of inflammatory markers. Soluble urokinase plasminogen activation receptor (suPAR) is known to be a stable marker for inflammation. We investigated the bidirectional association between suPAR levels and use of antidepressants.

Methods

suPAR level was measured in 9305 blood donors and analysed in relation to 5-years follow-up data on purchase of antidepressants and hospital diagnoses of depression from a nationwide Danish register.

Results

For men and women without prior use of antidepressants we found a significantly higher risk for incident use of antidepressants with higher suPAR values. For men, the risk of first use of antidepressants increased by 72% from the 1^st to the 4^th quartile (HR = 1.72, 95% CI: 1.11–2.69). For women, it increased by 108% from the 1^st to the 4^th quartile (HR = 2.08, 95% CI: 1.45–2.98). Previous use of antidepressants was also significantly associated with higher suPAR levels (p = 0.002).

Conclusions

High suPAR levels are associated with an increased risk for both previous and future use of antidepressants in healthy men and women. High suPAR are also associated with increased risk for a hospital diagnosis of depression.     

Arylphthalazines as potent,and orally bioavailable inhibitors of VEGFR-2

A series of arylphthalazine derivatives were synthesized and evaluated as antagonists of VEGF receptor II (VEGFR-2). IM-094482 57, which was prepared in two steps from commercially available starting materials, was found to be a potent inhibitor of VEGFR-2 in enzymatic, cellular and mitogenic assays (comparable activity to ZD-6474). Additionally, 57 inhibited the related receptor, VEGF receptor I (VEGFR-1), and showed excellent exposure when dosed orally to female CD-1 mice.     

Imidazole pyrimidine amides as potent, orally bioavailable cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors

The development of a novel series of imidazole pyrimidine amides as cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors is described. The series was found to have much improved CDK2 inhibition and potent in vitro anti-proliferative effects against cancer cell lines. Control of overall lipophilicity was important to achieve good in vitro potency along with acceptable physiochemical properties and margins against inhibition of both CYP isoforms and the hERG potassium ion channel. A compound with an attractive overall balance of properties was profiled in vivo and possessed suitable physiochemical and pharmacokinetic profiles for oral dosing.     

Bicyclic pyridones as potent, efficacious and orally bioavailable thrombin inhibitors

A new class of conformationally constrained thrombin inhibitors is described. These compounds contain a unique bicyclic pyridone scaffold which serves as a P3P2 dipeptide surrogate. The synthesis and antithrombotic activity of these inhibitors is reported.     

凝血酶激活的单链尿激酶型纤溶酶原激活剂的构建、表达、纯化和性质研究

用Ｋｕｎｋｅｌ突变法,将单链尿激酶型纤溶酶原激活剂（ｓｃｕ－ＰＡ）ｃＤＮＡ基因中编码Ｐｒｏ１５５—Ｌｙｓ１５８的片段定点突变,并将此突变的ｓｃｕ－ＰＡ（ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ）的ｃＤＮＡ克隆到表达载体ｐＣＭ－β－ｎｅｏ中,与ｐＣＭ－ｄｈｆｒ共转染ＣＨＯ／ＤＨＦＲ－细胞．获得的稳定表达株在无血清培养基中２４ｈ的表达量为６２０ＩＵ／１０６细胞．经锌离子螯合Ｓｅｐｈａｒｏｓｅ亲和层析得到ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ纯品．ＳＤＳ－ＰＡＧＥ显示ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ分子量为５３ｋＤ左右,与预期的结果相符．ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ是由凝血酶激活而不是由纤溶酶激活,但激活后也能转变为双链分子（ｔｃｕ－ＰＡ）．ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ仍保持了ｓｃｕ－ＰＡ的血纤维蛋白亲和性．酶动力学研究表明,激活后的ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ水解Ｓ２４４４的Ｋｍ和Ｋｃａｔ值与高分子量尿激酶（ＨＵＫ）相似．体外溶栓实验结果表明,ｔｓｃｕ－ＰＡ可以选择性地溶解富含凝血酶的血凝块,对贫凝血酶的血凝块作用不大