Pine forest structure in a human-dominated landscape system in Korea

To elucidate the characteristics of spatial heterogeneity in a human-dominated landscape, vegetation and community structure of pine (Pinus densiflora andP. rigida) forests were studied at rural Teokseong-ri in Chollanam-do, in the southwestern part of Korea. Daily removal of undergrowth for firewood affects the stratification and species composition in the community. In general, stratification of the pine forest develops in proportion to its distance from the main habitat of farmers, involving the residential and cultivated land. In pine forests near the main habitat of farmers, sun-demanding herbaceous plants grow well, while in remote forests, Fagaceous plants such asQuercus serrata, Q. actissima andCastanea crenata grow well. This zonation results from the fact that removal of undergrowth is greater in the forest near the main habitat of farmers, than in the remote forest. Construction and maintenance of graveyards, however, prevents development of stratification of the forest even in remote stands.     

Forest responses to the large-scale east coast fires in Korea

The east coast forest fires of April 2000 were Koreas largest recorded fires. This, along with the fact that they took place in the region most frequently affected by fire, attracted a great deal of attention. Due to the variations in wind, topography and pre-fire forest stands, a heterogeneous landscape mosaic of burn severity was created across the region. It turned out to be an excellent opportunity to study various landscape-scale impacts of fires on forest dynamics. Therefore, we investigated stands in the 23794ha of burned forest region, in terms of burn severity, vegetation regeneration and forested landscape change as a measure of community stability. Using the geographic information system technique, we analyzed the differential severity and post-fire recovery of pre-fire forest types of different stand age both at stand and species level. Analysis showed that pre-fire vegetation was composed of mainly pine (Pinus densiflora) stands that occupied 70% of the whole forested area, while pine-hardwood and hardwood stands occupied only 28% and 3%, respectively. In addition, two-thirds of all stands were less than 30-years-old. Pine stands were the most severely burned, while conversely pine-hardwood and hardwood stands were less vulnerable. This implied that pine forests had fire-prone characteristics. Vegetation recovery went the opposite way; that is, the regenerating vegetation cover was 71% at pre-fire hardwood stands, and 65% and 53% at pine-hardwood and pine stands, respectively. However, these recovery rates were strikingly fast, considering that investigation took place about 3months after the fires. Fire did not initiate successional processes, but tended to accelerate the predicted successional changes by releasing pre-fire understory species that survived the fires and regenerated by sprouting. The dominant pre-fire tree species (P. densiflora) was susceptible to fire and not resilient enough to reestablish in competition with oak species. Contrary to pines, the abilities of oak species, mainly Quercus mongolica and Q. variabilis, to survive fires and to resprout vigorously made them dominant at most post-fire stands. These shifts in species abundance caused drastic changes to the landscape: from pine-dominated to oak-dominated stands without any notable change in species composition. The patterns in forest regeneration that we observed in Korea may be representative of forest responses to any long-term repeated disturbances, including fire.     

Comparison of the initial demographies of pine and oak populations in rural pine forests in Korea and Japan

In order to understand the human impact upon demographic change in plant population in rural forests, we examined the population trends ofPinus densiflora andQuercus serrata inP. densiflora forests viewing their seedlings and saplings in rural Korea and Japan. The most prominent factor affecting the regeneration of the pine and oak was the intensity of management activity which controlled the vegetation stratification and its light environment. Open spaces, such as graveyard or cleaned area that allow the long-term direct daylight in dry season to accelerate the surface heat of soil, were unfavorable habitats for germination and growth of both species. The negative effects of the presence of litter and evergreen trees were related to the failure of early seedling and sapling growth of pine. Cover of litter is, especially, another factor related to the growth of pine saplings. It is considered that successful germination and sapling growth of pine and oak in early successional stages is determined by vegetation structures and light condition.     

Human impacts on pine-dominated vegetation in rural landscapes in Korea and western Japan

To understand the human influence on the successional process of vegetation, structures of the pine forest as a dominant vegetation were compared between in Yanghwa-ri of rural Korea and Miwa-cho of rural Japan. The secondary pine forests are well developed around the villages in both regions. In rural Korea, pine forests are still used intensively for several traditional purposes. The pine forests in Yanghwa-ri of Korea, therefore, are stayed in the early stage of the succession. The floristic composition in pine forests of Yanghwa-ri was similar to that in the secondary grasslands. The fertilizer trees such as Robinia and Alnus contributed to develop the stratification of the forest. On the other hand, in Japan, almost all pine forests in rural regions had been abandoned due to the changing of traditional use because of the economic growth and the development of alternative energy sources since 1960s. In the case of pine forests of Miwa-cho, those in the early successional stage were few in number and small in patch size. Several woody plants covered under the pine canopy. The shade-tolerant shrub invaded into pine forest floor, because the undergrowth as a traditional energy source had no longer used. Pine forests were partly succeeded by deciduous oaks in Miwa-cho corresponding to the social changes. On the contrary in Yanghwa-ri, the vegetation replacement will not present because traditional management such as collecting fuels and making graveyards will be remained as a Korean ideology in the rural landscape.     

Changes in the distribution of South Korean forest vegetation simulated using thermal gradient indices

To predict changes in South Korean vegetation distribution, the Warmth Index (WI) and the Minimum Temperature of the Coldest Month Index (MTCI) were used. Historical climate data of the past 30 years, from 1971 to 2000, was obtained from the Korea Meteorological Administration. The Fifth-Generation National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) /Penn State Mesoscale Model (MM5) was used as a source for future climatic data under the A1B scenario from the Special Report on Emission Scenario (SRES) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). To simulate future vegetation distribution due to climate change, the optimal habitat ranges of Korean tree species were delimited by the thermal gradient indices, such as WI and MTCI. To categorize the Thermal Analogy Groups (TAGs) for the tree species, the WI and MTCI were orthogonally plotted on a two-dimensional grid map. The TAGs were then designated by the analogue composition of tree species belonging to the optimal WI and MTCI ranges. As a result of the clustering process, 22 TAGs were generated to explain the forest vegetation distribution in Korea. The primary change in distribution for these TAGs will likely be in the shrinkage of areas for the TAGs related to Pinus densiflora and P. koraiensis, and in the expansion of the other TAG areas, mainly occupied by evergreen broad-leaved trees, such as Camellia japonica, Cyclobalanopsis glauca, and Schima superba. Using the TAGs to explain the effects of climate change on vegetation distribution on a more regional scale resulted in greater detail than previously used global or continental scale vegetation models.     

Biomass Expansion Factors of Natural Japanese Red Pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus densiflora</Emphasis>) Forests in Korea

Biomass expansion factors, which convert the timber volume (or dry weight) to biomass, are used to estimate the forest biomass and account for the carbon budget at the national or regional level. This study estimated the biomass conversion and expansion factors (BCEF), root to shoot ratio (R), biomass expansion factors (BEF) of natural Japanese Red Pine (Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc.) forests based on direct field measurements and publications in Korea. This study attempted to fit the non-linear relationships between the biomass expansion factors (BCEF and BEF) and main stand factors [stand age, tree height, and diameter at breast height (DBH)]. The relationship between BEF and each main stand factor was expressed as a simple logarithmical equation. The BCEF was also expressed as a logarithmical equation of the tree height, DBH, and stand volume, whereas there was no significant relationship between BCEF and stand age. The mean value for BCEF, BEF, and R was 0.5821 Mg m⁻³ (n = 22, SD = 0.1196), 1.4465 (n = 22, SD = 0.2905), and 0.2220 (n = 17, SD = 0.0687), respectively. The values of the biomass expansion factors in this study may indicate much representativeness to estimate forest biomass in natural Japanese Red Pine forests of Korea than the default values given by the IPCC (2003, 2006).     

Effect of streaked shearwaterCalonectris leucomelas on species composition ofPersea thunbergii forest on Kanmurijima Island,Kyoto Prefecture,Japan

The effects of trampling and burrowing by streaked shearwaters were studied on thePersea thunbergii forest in Kanmurijima Is. The vegetation data were analysed using both the phytosociological tabulation method and principal component analysis (PCA). The vegetation ordination on the first axis reflected the environmental gradient from light to heavy disturbance by the streaked shearwater, and the vegetation ordination on the second axis represented the gradient from the latter phase of forest succession to retrogressive succession. The position of the three vegetation groups in the ordination diagram successfully explained the relation between the habitat and the species composition. The disturbance caused by activities of the streaked shearwater such as burrowing and trampling causes a decrease of species, especially character species of Camellietea japonicae, and also causes retrogressive succession: patches ofMallotus japonicus develop and many heliophytes occur.     

Influence of Forest Fragmentation on the Winter Abundance of Mammals in Mt. Chirisan National Park,South Korea

Abstract: We examined the influence of both local habitat and landscape variables on mammal species abundance in a forest fragmented by road construction and in continuous forest in 8 study sites in Mt. Chirisan National Park, South Korea, from 2001 to 2004. We recorded tracks of 8 species of mammals, Siberian weasels (Mustela sibirica), yellow-throated martens (Martes flavigula), Bengal cats (Felis bengalensis), wild boars (Sus scrofa), water deer (Hydropotes inermis), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), Korean hares (Lepus coreanus), and red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), on the snow on 8 2-km transects in our study areas. There were significant differences in density of snags, mean tree basal area, and in shrub coverage between the fragmented and unfragmented forest areas. We found significant differences in abundance index of tracks between the fragmented and unfragmented areas for 5 mammal species; the others had even distributions. Of the 8 mammal species analyzed, 5 species related to landscape and local vegetation variables in a stepwise approach with repeated measures. Landscape variables are significant predictors of abundance for many mammal species. Forest managers should consider multiple measures of forest fragmentation sensitivity when making forest management decisions.     

Quantitative landscape dynamics in Denmark through the last three millennia based on the Landscape Reconstruction Algorithm approach

This paper explores the spatial and temporal land-cover variability within the main cultural landscape units in Denmark during the last 3,000 years. Quantitative estimates of the cover of trees, grasses, Cerealia and Calluna around nine Danish lakes were obtained using the recently developed Landscape Reconstruction Algorithm (LRA) (Sugita 2007a, b). The performance of the approach was evaluated by comparing reconstructed vegetation based on a.d. 1800 pollen spectra to land cover from historical maps of the same period. Although the model tended to overestimate grassland cover by 10–20%, the reconstructed vegetation was much more similar to the observed than the uncorrected pollen proportions. The LRA was then applied to 3,000 year long pollen records to reconstruct the vegetation development around each of the nine sites. The results support earlier conclusions regarding the relative stability of woodland, agrarian and heathland dominated landscapes in Denmark (Odgaard and Rasmussen 2000), with the distribution of the main landscape types determined by topography and soil characteristics. The present study indicates that the transition zones between agricultural and forest dominated landscapes were the most dynamic, acting as buffer zones where most of the expansions and contractions of agricultural activities took place. The quantitative vegetation reconstructions underline the importance of farming and especially pastoral activities in shaping the Danish landscapes throughout the study period.     

Composition of Woody Species in a Dynamicforest–woodland–savannah Mosaic in Uganda: Implications for Conservation and Management

Forest–woodland–savannah mosaics are a common feature in the East African landscape. For the conservation of the woody species that occur in such landscapes, the species patterns and the factors that maintain it need to be understood. We studied the woody species distribution in a forest–woodland–savannah mosaic in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. The existing vegetation gradients were analyzed using data from a total of 591 plots of 400 or 500 m² each. Remotely sensed data was used to explore current vegetation cover and the gradients there in for the whole area. A clear species gradient exists in the study area ranging from forest, where there is least disturbance, to wooded grassland, where frequent fire disturbance occurs. Most species are not limited to a specific part of the gradient although many show a maximum abundance at some point along the gradient. Fire and accessibility to the protected area were closely related to variation in species composition along the ordination axis with species like Cynometra alexandri and Uvariopsis congensis occurring at one end of the gradient and Combretum guenzi and Lonchocarpus laxiflorus at the other. The vegetation cover classes identified in the area differed in diversity, density and, especially, basal area. All vegetation cover classes, except open woodland, had indicator species. Diospyros abyssinica, Uvariopsis congensis, Holoptelea grandis and all Celtis species were the indicator species for the forest class, Terminalia velutina and Albizia grandbracteata for closed woodland, Grewia mollis and Combretum mole for very open woodland and Lonchocarpus laxiflorus, Grewia bicolor and Combretum guenzi for the wooded grassland class. Eleven of the species occurred in all cover classes and most of the species that occurred in more than one vegetation cover class showed peak abundance in a specific cover class. Species composition in the study area changes gradually from forest to savannah. Along the gradient, the cover classes are distinguishable in terms of species composition and vegetation structure. These classes are, however, interrelated in species composition. For conservation of the full range of the species within this East African landscape, the mosaic has to be managed as an integrated whole. Burning should be varied over the area with the forest not being burnt at all and the wooded grassland burnt regularly. The different vegetation types that occur between these two extremes should be maintained using a varied fire regime.     

Cork-oak woodlands as key-habitats for biodiversity conservation in Mediterranean landscapes: a case study using rove and ground beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae, Carabidae)

Land-use intensification in Mediterranean agro-forest systems became a pressure on biodiversity, concerning particularly the woodland sensitive species. In 2001, the effects of a land-use gradient from old-growth cork-oak forest to a homogeneous agricultural area were assessed using rove beetles as indicators in a Mediterranean landscape. The aim was to find which species were negatively affected by land-use intensification at the landscape level and whether they benefited from cork-oak patches occurring along the land-use gradient. A total of 3,196 rove beetles from 88 taxa were sampled from all landscape types. Agricultural area recorded significantly higher numbers of abundance and species richness in relation to the cork-oak mosaics, i.e. the old-growth forest and the managed agro-forest landscapes (montados). Moreover, 70% of rove beetle indicator species common enough to be tested by IndVal displayed their highest indicator value for agriculture, showing a lower number of woodland indicators in comparison to ground beetles. Nevertheless, one rove beetle taxon was considered a specialist of closed woodland mosaics while no specialist ground beetle was found for that landscape typology. Some rare rove beetle species were also important in typifying diversity patterns of old-growth cork-oak forests. Hence, future management in Mediterranean landscapes should take into account not only indicator species common enough to be tested by IndVal, but also rare and endemic species. Considering the added value of cork-oak woodland cover for sensitive rove and ground beetle diversity, the strengthening of cork-oak woodland connectivity seems to be a crucial management that is required in agricultural Mediterranean landscapes.     

Contrasting effects of mosaic structure on alpha and beta diversity of bird assemblages in a human‐modified landscape

Habitat loss and fragmentation are key processes causing biodiversity loss in human‐modified landscapes. Knowledge of these processes has largely been derived from measuring biodiversity at the scale of ‘within‐habitat’ fragments with the surrounding landscape considered as matrix. Yet, the loss of variation in species assemblages ‘among’ habitat fragments (landscape‐scale) may be as important a driver of biodiversity loss as the loss of diversity ‘within’ habitat fragments (local‐scale). We tested the hypothesis that heterogeneity in vegetation cover is important for maintaining alpha and beta diversity in human‐modified landscapes. We surveyed bird assemblages in eighty 300‐m‐long transects nested within twenty 1‐km² vegetation ‘mosaics’, with mosaics assigned to four categories defined by the cover extent and configuration of native eucalypt forest and exotic pine plantation. We examined bird assemblages at two spatial scales: 1) within and among transects, and 2) within and among mosaics. Alpha diversity was the mean species diversity within‐transects or within‐mosaics and beta diversity quantified the effective number of compositionally distinct transects or mosaics. We found that within‐transect alpha diversity was highest in vegetation mosaics defined by continuous eucalypt forest, lowest in mosaics of continuous pine plantation, and at intermediate levels in mosaics containing eucalypt patches in a pine matrix. We found that eucalypt mosaics had lower beta diversity than other mosaic types when ignoring relative abundances, but had similar or higher beta diversity when weighting with species abundances. Mosaics containing both pine and eucalypt forest differed in their bird compositional variation among transects, despite sharing a similar suite of species. This configuration effect at the mosaic scale reflected differences in vegetation composition among transects. Maintaining heterogeneity in vegetation cover could help to maintain variation among bird assemblages across landscapes, thus partially offsetting local‐scale diversity losses due to fragmentation. Critical to this is the retention of remnant native vegetation.     

Vegetation trajectories of Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc.) forests at Mt. Seorak, Korea

The vegetation dynamics of Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora) forests were investigated at Mt. Seorak, Korea. Our Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) classified the forests into four types: ridge top, upper slope, lower slope/hill, and streamside. The ridge top forests were likely to sustain themselves, as suggested by the large proportion of seedlings and saplings (89% at <25 years old) and the relatively high density ofP. densiflora (2388 stems ha^-1). Periodic disturbances, such as flash floods, made the streamside inhospitable to late-successional species. Such conditions may have provided a favorable environment for the recruitment ofP. densiflora seedlings through increased solar radiation and decreased competition with other species. On the upper slopes, the dominance ofQuercus seedlings and saplings (63% at >25 years old, and a density of 3263 stems ha^-1) suggests a transition from pine to oak forest. Extensive human interventions appeared to arrest the natural succession from pine to oak forests on the lower slope/hill, while encouraging invasions by forest-edge and introduced species (e.g.,Rosa multiflora andRobinia pseudoacacia).     

Holocene vegetation and climate change from near Lake Pedder, south-west Tasmania, Australia

Aim To use surface pollen and vegetation relationships to aid the interpretation of a Holocene pollen record. Location South‐west Tasmania, Australia. Methods A survey was undertaken of surface‐pollen samples from the major regional vegetation types: alpine, rain forest and moorland. Relationships between vegetation type and surface‐pollen representation were analysed using twinspan classification and ordination. A core was retrieved from moorland vegetation, and interpretation of the fossil pollen sequence was aided using relationships detected in our surface‐pollen analysis. Results Regional vegetation types are reflected in the pollen rain of south‐west Tasmania, despite the over‐representation of important rain forest tree species in samples from non‐forest sites. twinspan classification of the surface‐pollen samples identified the following indicator pollen taxa for each vegetation type: Astelia alpina (alpine); Lagarostrobos franklinii (rain forest); Leptospermum and Melaleuca (moorland). Detrended correspondence analysis of the surface‐pollen samples clearly separates samples from each vegetation type. Correlation of the ordination axes with environmental data identified a dominant temperature/altitudinal gradient in the surface‐pollen data (R = 0.852/0.844). Application of the results of the surface‐pollen analysis to the fossil sequence revealed that fire‐promoted moorland has dominated the local environment around the core site for the entire Holocene. Changes in fossil pollen composition also suggest that temperatures increased through the Late Glacial to peak in the mid‐Holocene and declined thereafter, a trend consistent with other sites in the region. Main conclusions Pollen spectra can successfully be used to predict local vegetation in south‐west Tasmania. At least this part of inland south‐west Tasmania has remained forest‐free throughout the Holocene, conflicting with the dominant palaeoecological paradigm of a mid‐Holocene dominated by rain forest. A comparison with pollen records from moorland vegetation across the region suggests that fire‐promoted moorland has dominated the landscape since the Late Glacial. We suggest that burning by people through the Late Glacial (if not earlier) facilitated the spread of moorland throughout the region, greatly restricting the expansion of rain forest. The continued influence of fire throughout the Holocene in this perennially wet landscape argues for a revision of the dominant human‐occupation model that depicts an abandonment of the interior of south‐west Tasmania in the Late Glacial in response to the expansion of rain forest.     

Landscape Dynamics in Northwestern Amazonia: An Assessment of Pastures,Fire and Illicit Crops as Drivers of Tropical Deforestation

Many studies have identified drivers of deforestation throughout the tropics and, in most cases, have recognised differences in the level of threat. However, only a few have also looked at the temporal and spatial dynamics by which those drivers act, which is critical for assessing the conservation of biodiversity as well as for landscape planning. In this study, we analyse land cover change between 2000 and 2009 in north-western Colombian Amazonia to identify the interactions between the use of fire, cultivation of illicit crops and establishment of pastures, and their impacts on the loss of forest in the region. Yearly analyses were undertaken at randomly selected sample areas to quantify the average areas of transition of land cover types under different landscape compositions: forest-dominated mosaics, pasture mosaics, fire mosaics, and illicit crop mosaics. Our results indicate that despite the fact that forest areas were well-preserved, deforestation occurred at a low annual rate (0.06%). Conversion to pasture was the main factor responsible for forest loss (the area of pastures tripled within forest mosaics over 8 years), and this process was independent of the landscape matrix in which the forests were located. In fire mosaics, burning is a common tool for forest clearing and conversion to pasture. Thus, forests in fire mosaics were highly disturbed and frequently transformed from primary to secondary forests. The use of fire for illicit cropping was not detected, partly due to the small size of common illicit crops. Forest regeneration from pastures and secondary vegetation was observed in areas with large amounts of natural forest. Overall, assuming the continuation of the observed pasture conversion trend and the use of forest fire, we suggest that our results should be incorporated into a spatially explicit and integrated decision support tool to target and focus land-planning activities and policies.     

Environmental conditions in relation to variability of deciduous forest vegetation — a study from volcanic mountain in central Slovakia

The deciduous forests represent dominant natural vegetation of Central European landscape and an important functional component for maintenance of biological diversity. However, their syntaxonomy and ecological gradients still remain unclear. The numerical classification was conducted to determine the main units of forest vegetation, while ordination techniques were used to explain the structure of vegetation-environmental data matrix consisting of 110 forest stands in the Štiavnické vrchy Mts (central Slovakia). Ten vegetation types within the phytosociological classes of deciduous forests Quercetea robori-petraeae and Querco-Fagetea were distinguished. The major environmental driver responsible for variation in forest species composition was interpreted as a response to soil moisture which also accounted for a large part of species variability (3.74%). Soil nutrient/acidity complex expressed by pH, Ca and Al concentration was also an important source of vegetation variability. Relevance of soil conditions in relation to plant survival and community distribution was discussed. Along the soil moisture gradient, vegetation types were arranged from the subxerophilous oak forests through the mesophilous beech and ravine forests to the hygrophilous alder ash vegetation.     

Stand characteristics,understorey associates and environmental correlates ofEucalyptus tetrodonta F. Muell. forests on Gunn Point,northern Australia

An ordination study of 20Eucalyptus tetrodonta forest stands growing on deep earths in monsoonal Australia revealed two major gradients in understorey vegetation type. The first axis reflected both floristic and structural understorey variation, where litter and shrub cover were inversely related to grass cover. This axis is thought to reflect a complex fire-vegetation type interaction, where vegetation is primarily determined by the saturation of the soil profile in the wet season, as measured by the colour of the iron rich soils. On the second axis of the ordination, floristic composition but not vegetation structure, and stand height were found to vary with the intercorrelated measures of soil gravel and moisture supply.E. tetrodonta is able to regenerate in the absence of fire, but firing appears to stimulate regeneration. All stands contained some advance growth, which occurs in distinct clumps, probably reflecting these plants clonal origin. Sapling presence in the stands is variable and the recruitment of advance growth into this size class appears to be related to over-wood competition. The size class distribution of trees was found to be similar amongst the stands, therefore stand structure appeared to be independent of understorey type. In comparison to general models of temperate eucalypt regeneration processes the tropical eucalypts have evolved different regeneration strategies, possibly in response to the severe annual drought.Nomenclature: Chippendale (1971), unless otherwise indicated. Structural classification: Specht (1970).I acknowledge the help of Mr. Clyde Dunlop who identified plant specimens and provided stimulating discussion, and Dr. Peter Minchin for permission to use the computer package ECOPACK to prepare and handle the floristic data, and his invaluable assistance with the ordination analysis. Mr. Lee Belbin and CSIRO Division of Water and Land Resources kindly gave their permission to use the Numerical Taxonomy Package (NTP).     

Pattern of land mosaics affecting butterfly assemblage at Mt Ikoma, Osaka, Japan

We studied the effects of habitat mosaics on butterfly assemblage on multiple spatial scales: landscape, landscape element, local habitat, and microhabitat, based on the transect counts conducted along a 3.84 km route. The transect route, including 21 local habitats, passed through two distinct areas: 1.65 km of a secondary deciduous Quercus forest and the grove of a shrine in Hiraoka, and 2.19 km of a mosaic of secondary deciduous Quercus forest, grassland, and farmland in Narukawa. The diversity of the landscape elements and species richness were higher in Narukawa than in Hiraoka; the landscape mosaic enhanced the species richness in Narukawa. However, the diversity indices and specialist species (univoltine tree feeder) were decreased in this mosaic landscape. The species richness at local habitats was also increased by the mosaic of microhabitats, such as the herbaceous layer, glade, and mantle in the local habitats, whereas it was decreased by an abundant shrub layer. The ratios of species richness to abundance in the local habitats were lower than expected based on random sampling from the total of Hiraoka and Narukawa. This means that local assemblages were non-random samples from an assemblage on the landscape or regional scale, and were made up by the process of habitat selection of butterfly species in the assemblages on the landscape or regional scale. For conservation of butterfly assemblages, we recommend that woodlands should be kept without fragmentation, but with glades or small grasslands, and with clearance of the shrub layer along the path.     

山东五莲山植物群落结构及物种多样性

五莲山自然保护区地处鲁东南沿海地区,为全面了解其群落结构组成及物种多样性,作者进行了野外调查,共获得11个标准样方,面积6 600 m²。样方内记录到高等植物52科141种。该保护区地带性植被为常绿—落叶针阔叶天然次生混交林、落叶阔叶林,主要森林植被为赤松—板栗群落(Pinus densiflora-Castanea mollissima community)、麻栎—赤松群落(Quercus acutissima-Pinus densiflora community)、赤松—杜鹃群落（P. densiflora-Rhododendron simsii community）、麻栎—杜鹃群落(Q. acutissima-Rhododendron simsii community)。样方数据显示该区域木本植物种类不是很丰富,但植物群落结构复杂,具有明显的生境异质性,其多样性指数乔木层＜木本层＜灌木层。作者认为影响该保护区核心区多样性的最显著特征应该为海拔和坡度,而人为干扰会严重影响外围保护区植被类型及其物种多样性。整体上看,本区域正处于群落演替早期,种间竞争尚不充分,物种多样性偏低。