The cyclopoid copepods of a wet campo marsh in central Brazil

Eight species of cyclopoid copepods were recorded from 1979–1983 in the complex microhabitats of a wet campo (campo úmido) marsh in central Brazil. Ectocyclops herbsti and Paracyclops fimbriatus occurred most often in areas with water covering the soil; Muscocyclops therasiae n. sp. occurred mainly in soils with no surface water; while Metacyclops campestris n. sp. showed no distinct microhabitat preference. Occurrence of the remaining four species was too sporadic to determine microhabitat preference. Paracyclops carectum n. sp., Metacyclops campestris n. sp., Muscocyclops therasiae n. sp., Muscocyclops bidentatus n. sp. and Ponticyclops boscoi n. g. n. sp. are described. A key to the New World species of Metacyclops s. str. is provided.     

Giselinidae fam. nov., a new monophyletic group of cyclopoid copepods (Copepoda, Crustacea) from the Atlantic deep sea

Four new species of Cyclopoida from deep-sea waters are described and placed in two new genera: Giselina gen. n. and Sensogiselina gen. n. The new genera and species belong to a new monophyletic group within the cyclopinid cyclopoids. A new name, Giselinidae, is proposed for this monophylum. The new family is characterised by the combination of the following characters: (1) tergite of leg 1 fused to cephalosome dorsally, but incompletely fused laterally, (2) absence of aesthetascs on ancestral antennulary segments XVI, XXI and XXV, (3) absence of antennary exopodal setae, (4) presence of only three spines on distal exopodal segment of leg 1, (5) absence of inner setae on first endopodal segments of legs 1–4, (6) outer terminal and distal inner elements of distal endopodal segment of leg 4 transformed into spines, (7) distal outer element of leg 5 exopod transformed into a spine, (8) leg 6 with only one seta, and (9) furcal setae I and III located on dorsal margin. Received in revised form: 16 June 2000 Electronic Publication     

Species assemblages of cyclopoid Copepoda from Mantecal,Venezuela

A 14 year monitoring of species composition and abundance of cyclopoid copepods throughout the rainy and dry seasons in a flooded savanna at Mantecal, Apure State, Venezuela, is presented. Two characteristic habitats within these water bodies were selected: the open center of small ponds free of emergent vegetation and the surrounding flooded grassland. In total, 13 species were registered, all of which appeared in the flooded grassland and 11 of which occurred in the open water. Ten species were common for the two habitats during the dry season. The highest abundance was found in flooded grassland during the dry season. Eight species showed abundances greater than 1.0 individual per liter in flooded grassland during both seasons; 3 and 7 species were this abundant in the open water during rainy and dry seasons, respectively. Mesocyclops meridianus and Microcyclops varicans were the most abundant species in both habitats and seasons, while Thermocyclops decipiens was the dominant species during rainy season in open water. Principal component analysis indicates that the important species were positively correlated between them (sharing habitat and season).     

Origin and evolution of the parasitic cyclopoid copepods

Six of the 10 recognised families of the order Cyclopoida are parasitic, with 4 of them occurring on marine invertebrates and the remaining 2 on freshwater gastropods and fishes, respectively. A cladistic analysis of the 10 families indicates that evolution of parasitism occurred twice in the history of the cyclopoids. The first attempt was made by the marine epibenthic ancestors seeking food and shelter in sessile tunicates — the ascidians. This event led to the evolution of 2 ascidicolous families: Archinotodelphyidae and Notodelphyidae. The descendant of this lineage had also invaded the mantle cavity of marine bivalve molluscs, eventually leading to the evolution of the Mantridae. The second attempt for the parasitic mode of life was launched by the ancestor which was the sister group of the ancestral cyclopoids — the most successful family of freshwater copepods. This ancestral stock, while living in the coastal zone, split into 2 groups: one group stayed behind in the ocean and colonised again the ascidians; the other groups invaded freshwater and evolved into the fish-parasitising Lernaeidae and the gastropod-parasitising Ozmanidae.     

Field evaluation of Tilapia zilli (Gervais) as a biological control agent for mosquito control

Tilapia zilli (Gervais), a larvivorous fish identified in the Mwea Rice Irrigation System (Kenya), was evaluated in the field to assess its potential for biological control of mosquito larvae. The study was conducted from October 1991 to April 1992 in experimental ponds constructed at Mbui-Njeru, which is one of the 36 villages in the irrigation scheme. T. zilli was found to be extremely effective in controlling mosquito breeding that persisted throughout the study period. However, the presence of vegetation and turbidity significantly reduced its efficiency in predation. The negative effects of vegetation could be averted by combining T. zilli with an herbivorous fish to control weeds. Similarly, breeding of other larvivorous organisms, including frogs, should be encouraged to enhance mosquito control efficiency. It is suggested that positive measures should be taken to deter colonization of catfish whose presence aggravates the turbidity problem and also depletes the fish population due to its substrate feeding and carnivorous behaviour.     

Two new genera of cyclopinid copepods (Crustacea) from anchihaline caves on western Mediterranean and eastern Atlantic islands

Troglocyclopina balearica gen nov. ap. nov. and Muceddina multispinosa gen nov. sp. nov. are described from the flooded coastal karst of the Balearic Islands, and from caves on Sardinia, the Balearics, and Lanzarote (Canaries), respectively. Both taxa seem to prefer anchihaline habitats with water salinities in excess of 18%, although Troglocyclopina has also been found in more reduced salinity cave lakes located some distance from the coast. These new taxa are the first cyclopinids to be reported from caves, all previous citations of cyclopinids from hypogean environments relate only to the marine interstitial. The small clutch-size exhibited by Troglocyclopina balearica (two eggs per sac) and the absence of the exopodal seta on the antenna at Muceddina multispinosa are interpreted as troglomorphic features, in addition to the absence of the nauplius eye and the lack of body pigmentation in both taxa. The derivation of both taxa from shallow-water, hyperbenthic marine ancestors is proposed.     

Larval mosquito control through deployment of xiphidiocercariae

Larval trematodes (xiphidiocercariae) have been found to encyst in mosquito larvae. When the number of cysts is high, this results in the death of the mosquito larva. It is suggested that populating waters containing mosquito larvae with xiphidiocercariae can be developed as a mosquito control measure.     

Complementary impact of copepods and cladocerans on phytoplankton

The differences in the impact of two major groups of herbivorous zooplankton (Cladocera and Copepoda) on summer phytoplankton in a mesotrophic lake were studied. Field experiments were performed in which phytoplankton were exposed to different densities of two major types of herbivorous zooplankton, cladocerans and copepods. Contrary to expectation, neither of the two zooplankton groups significantly reduced phytoplankton biomass. However, there were strong and contrasting impacts on phytoplankton size structure and on individual taxa. Cladocerans suppressed small phytoplankton, while copepods suppressed large phytoplankton. The unaffected size classes compensated for the loss of those affected by enhanced growth. After contamination of the copepod mesocosms with the cladoceran Daphnia , the combined impact of both zooplankton groups caused a decline in total phytoplankton biomass.     

Effectiveness of zooprophylaxis in malaria control: a theoretical inquiry, with a model for mosquito populations with two bloodmeal hosts

A model for a vector mosquito population with two bloodmeal hosts (man and a domestic animal) was developed to study the influences of domestic animals on the frequency of mosquito bites on man and the endemicity of human malaria. The vector population model, including blood-feeding success in the adult stage (depending on host density and biting efficiency) and density-dependent regulation in the larval stage, was combined with the Ross-Macdonald malaria transmission model. Model analyses suggested that introduction of domestic animals easily fed upon by mosquitoes increases mosquito density and, in some situations, frequency of mosquito bites on man and the infection rate of malaria through increased success of blood-feeding. Extinction of malaria was predicted only when an extremely large number of easily accessible (as compared to man) domestic animals are introduced. Limitations in the concept of zooprophylaxis and problems of livestock management in malaria control are discussed.     

Variation in torpidity of diapause in freshwater cyclopoid copepods

By successively filtering off animals emerging from mud cores taken to the laboratory, the degree of torpidity within the same species was found to vary considerably both time and space. Variation in time from the start of dormancy follows a pattern of diapause development similar to that of insect diapause. In some localities dormancy is deep and prolonged, while in others it is less pronounced and lasts for a shorter period. The depth of torpidity during winter seems to be correlated to an induction early in the year. The intensity of diapause varies along the slope of the localities and down into the bottom mud. In some cases high temperatures seem to induce a deeper torpidity.     

A simple method for maintaining a laboratory supply of limnetic cyclopoid copepods

The following method is used for maintaining a laboratory supply of freshwater cyclopoid copepods with intervening diapause phase. Animals are collected with a core sampler from the upper sediment surface just after initiation of diapause, i.e. during early summer for summer resting species and mid autumn for winter resting species. The method makes it possible at all times of the year to keep a variety of cyclopoid copepod species ready for experimental work. The following widespread species have been used: Mesocyclops leuckarti, Thermocyclops oithonoides, Diacyclops bicuspidatus, Cyclops vicinus, C. strenuus and C. abyssorum. Probably all cyclopoid copepods with a diapause phase could be stored according to the present method.     

Filtering and feeding rates of cyclopoid copepods feeding on phytoplankton

The algal biomass ingested by omnivorous cyclopoid copepods (Cyclops kolensis and C. vicinus) was measured by two methods in the hypertrophic Heiligensee in Berlin (West Germany). The clearance and ingestion rates inferred from measurements of natural populations of ¹⁴C labelled phytoplankton were compared with those obtained from chlorophyll a determinations using the presence/absence method (observed chlorophyll a content of natural lake phytoplankton with and without addition of cyclopoids). Both methods gave similar results. Nevertheless, the radio tracer method is preferred, mainly because the short feeding duration excludes high variations in both the food composition and food concentration that limit the presence/absence method.     

Laboratory evaluation of Toxorhynchites splendens (Diptera: Culicidae) for predation of Aedes albopictus mosquito larvae

Biology of the mosquito Toxorhynchites splendens (Wiedemann) was studied in the laboratory to provide baseline data for using the predatory larvae of this species against those of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) in a biological control programme. The mean incubation time of Tx.splendens eggs was 43.8 h and the time required for newly-hatched larvae to initiate predation was 2.5 h. Mean numbers of prey larvae consumed and killed by each Tx.splendens larva totalled 389 and 345 respectively. The larval period of Tx.splendens was not significantly different for rearing individually or in groups of nine, with equal prey density, and duration of larval development was proportional to prey density. In mass rearing, larval cannibalism was usually observed during days 1-3 post-eclosion. The incidence of cannibalism decreased sharply on the fourth day after hatching when some larvae became fourth-instar. Adult female Tx.splendens usually commenced oviposition on day 4 after emergence. The number of eggs laid daily increased on day 7 and the peak oviposition of 6.3 eggs/female/day occurred on day 11. When oviposition containers were provided only intermittently, gravid females of Tx.splendens scattered most of their eggs on the dry floor of the cage. Viability of eggs laid by females aged 4-14 days was high (60-90%) but decreased to less than 40% as the females aged.     

Feeding and digestive activity of cyclopoid copepods in active diapause

Three different methods were used to compare the feeding patterns of active cyclopoids and cyclopoids in active diapause from different habitats. First, we offered ¹⁴C- labeled algal detritus to stage III, stage IV (two different physiological groups), and adult females of Acanthocyclops vernalis from temporary water-bodies of the Volga Delta. Second, we compared the functional responses of active and actively diapausing cyclopoids preying on copepod nauplii. Stage III, stage IV (various physiological groups), stage V, adult males and females of Acanthocyclops viridis, Cyclops kolensis, C. abyssorum sevani from the Volga Delta, Lake Sevan (Armenia), and Mozhaisk Reservoir (Moscow District) were tested. Finally, we examined the activity of digestive enzymes (proteases) of CIV of C. kolensis from Mozhaisk Reservoir at different temperatures and temperature acclimation regimes. All three approaches used have led to similar conclusions. Actively diapausing cyclopoids were capable of feeding on both plant and animal prey; however, their feeding rates and digestive enzyme activity were 2–8 times lower than those of active cyclopoids of similar size. At the initial stage of active diapause the feeding rates were comparable with those of active cyclopoids then declined to a low level during approximately two weeks. Transfer of cyclopoids undergoing winter diapause from ambient temperature (4 °C) to warmer water (20 °C) resulted in dramatic increase of proteases activity only if the acclimation period was relatively long (two weeks).     

Macroevolutionary patterns of sexual size dimorphism in copepods

Major theories compete to explain the macroevolutionary trends observed in sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in animals. Quantitative genetic theory suggests that the sex under historically stronger directional selection will exhibit greater interspecific variance in size, with covariation between allometric slopes (male to female size) and the strength of SSD across clades. Rensch''s rule (RR) also suggests a correlation, but one in which males are always the more size variant sex. Examining free-living pelagic and parasitic Copepoda, we test these competing predictions. Females are commonly the larger sex in copepod species. Comparing clades that vary by four orders of magnitude in their degree of dimorphism, we show that isometry is widespread. As such we find no support for either RR or for covariation between allometry and SSD. Our results suggest that selection on both sexes has been equally important. We next test the prediction that variation in the degree of SSD is related to the adult sex ratio. As males become relatively less abundant, it has been hypothesized that this will lead to a reduction in both inter-male competition and male size. However, the lack of such a correlation across diverse free-living pelagic families of copepods provides no support for this hypothesis. By comparison, in sea lice of the family Caligidae, there is some qualitative support of the hypothesis, males may suffer elevated mortality when they leave the host and rove for sedentary females, and their female-biased SSD is greater than in many free-living families. However, other parasitic copepods which do not appear to have obvious differences in sex-based mate searching risks also show similar or even more extreme SSD, therefore suggesting other factors can drive the observed extremes.