哺乳动物精子发生过程中的细胞凋亡及其影响因素

睾丸生殖细胞凋亡是维持精子发生动态平衡,限制生精上皮生殖细胞数量的一个重要生理机制,受多种因素调控。本简要叙述精子发生过程中细胞凋亡的激素调节、基因调控及其他理化等因素的影响及其作用机制。     

MCT在精子发生中的表达规律及调控机制的研究进展

单羧酸转运蛋白(monocarboxylate transporters,MCTs)是哺乳动物细胞膜上一类重要的跨膜转运蛋白,主要负责乳酸盐、丙酮酸盐、酮体等单羧酸类化合物的跨膜转运。MCT基因在睾丸生精上皮细胞发育、分化过程中具有不同程度表达,并通过多种途径调节精子发生过程。开展对MCT基因在精子发生过程的作用研究有助于人们从能量代谢角度进一步阐明生精细胞发育和精子发生的调控机制。本研究着重从MCT在精子发生过程中的表达定位、功能及调节机制进行综述。     

精子发生过程中的相关基因

在哺乳动物精子发生过程中, 原生殖细胞发育成为精原细胞, 再发育为精母细胞, 精母细胞经过两次减数分裂成为圆形精细胞, 这些圆形精细胞经过细胞变态形成精子。精子发生过程经历了复杂的细胞分化阶段, 这一阶段受许多因素的调控作用, 其中生精细胞内的基因调节起着决定作用。精子发生中的重要基因与一系列精子发生过程中阶段性的细胞事件密切相关, 例如减数分裂重组、联会丝复合物的形成、姊妹染色体的结合、减数分裂后精子的变态以及减数分裂周期中的关键点和必需因子等。生精细胞许多特异基因的阶段特异性表达, 参与了精子发生这一特殊的细胞分化过程。近年来随着基因克隆、表达和功能研究技术的发展和应用, 发现了许多与精子发生相关的基因, 而且有的被证明在精子发生过程中具有重要作用。文章较全面综述了这一研究领域的一些进展, 着重讨论了与精子发生相关的周期蛋白基因、原癌基因、无精子因子基因、细胞骨架基因、热休克基因、核蛋白转型基因、中心体蛋白基因和细胞凋亡相关基因等。     

哺乳动物精子体外发生

精子的发生是一个高度复杂而有序的过程 ,涉及到细胞的增殖和分化。体外培养生精细胞在近年来取得了较大进展 ,建立了睾丸组织培养、曲精细管小段培养、支持细胞 生精细胞共培养及藻酸钙胶囊包裹培养等方法。建立生精细胞体外培养模型有助于 :(1)研究精子发生的调控机制 ;(2 )直接对雄性生殖细胞进行遗传修饰 ;(3)用于辅助生育技术 ,治疗精子发生阻滞的患者。如何改善培养条件 ,进一步提高生殖细胞的存活、分化、增殖效率 ,是使哺乳动物体外精子发生发展成为一项适用性较强的技术所必须解决的问题。     

精子发生相关基因的研究进展

哺乳类动物的精子发生历经有丝分裂、减数分裂和精子形成三个阶段,这一特殊的细胞分化过程受多种因素的调控,而生精细胞内基因水平的调节,在精子发生过程中起着决定性的作用.许多生精细胞特异性的基因或转录具有发育阶段特异性表达特征,参与精子发生过程中特异的细胞分化活动,如减数分裂、遗传物质重组、染色质的浓缩和发育后期的一系列形态变化.近年来随着基因克隆、表达及功能研究技术的发展与应用,发现了许多精子发生的相关基因,有的已被证明在精子发生中起重要作用.然而对这一过程中许多现象的关键基因还所知甚少,需要进行更加广泛深入的研究.本文旨在较全面地综述这一领域研究的最新进展,着重讨论了与精子发生有关的转录因子基因、细胞周期相关基因、原癌基因、细胞凋亡相关基因、核蛋白转型相关基因方面的研究,为从事该领域研究的工作者提供参考信息.     

FSH与睾酮在Sertoli细胞中的信号转导通路

卵泡刺激素(Follicilestimulatinghormone,FSH)与睾酮(Testosterone)在哺乳动物精子发生过程中起重要的调控作用。两种激素的作用靶点均为曲细精管的支持细胞(Sertoli细胞)。Sertoli细胞对生精细胞的物理支持及营养供应等是维持正常精子发生所必需的。FSH与睾酮在Sertoli细胞中有各自的胞内信号通路,近年来该领域的研究取得了较大的进展,本文将综述FSH、睾酮激活Sertoli细胞内信号通路的研究进展,讨论不同信号通路对Sertoli细胞代谢、基因表达及精子发生的调控机制。     

隐睾不育的分子基础

隐睾症或热局部处理猴和大鼠睾丸, 能引起可逆性生精细胞凋亡, 出现少精或无精现象. 43℃局部热浴猴睾丸可引起精液中精子数量发生可逆性减少. 睾丸支持细胞为生精细胞提供结构支持与营养供给. 生精上皮中支持细胞间以及支持细胞和各级生精细胞间的特殊连接在精子发生中起着至关重要的作用. 本研究组发现, 热处理后紧密连接分子, 如occludin, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1)在24~48 h表达明显下降, 血睾屏障(blood-testis barrier, BTB)发生了可逆性破坏. 该过程还伴随着TGF-β2和TGF-β3表达增高, p38 MAPK和ERK/MAPK信号通路激活. 由此推测, 热激可能通过引发TGF-bs增高, 下调紧密连接相关蛋白的表达, 导致细胞连接减弱, 从而引起BTB结构发生可逆性紊乱. 此外, 本文还综述了成年小鼠实验性隐睾睾丸中总基因的表达变化, 成功克隆了几个生理功能显著, 与精子发生特异相关的新基因.     

精子发生过程中组蛋白甲基化和乙酰化

精子发生(Spermatogenesis)这一高度复杂的独特分化过程包括精原细胞发育为精母细胞、单倍体精细胞的形成和精子成熟,并以阶段特异性和睾丸特异性基因的表达、有丝分裂和减数分裂以及组蛋白向鱼精蛋白的转变为特征。表观遗传修饰在减数分裂重组、联会复合物的形成、姊妹染色体的结合、减数分裂后精子的变态、基因表达阻遏和异染色质形成过程中发挥着重要作用。其中具有一定组成形式、起抑制作用和/或激活作用的组蛋白甲基化和乙酰化标记,不仅保证了正确的染色体配对和二价染色体的成功分离,并且精确调节减数分裂特异性基因的适时表达。精子发生过程中组蛋白甲基化和/或乙酰化错误会直接影响表观遗传修饰的建立和维持,导致生精细胞异常甚至引发不育。文章旨在对精子发生过程中组蛋白甲基化和乙酰化表观遗传修饰的动态变化及其相关酶的调节机制进行综述,为进一步研究精子发生的表观遗传调控,预防男性不育疾病的发生提供基础资料。     

哺乳动物睾丸细胞间连接的动态调控

精子的发生过程是一个受多种因素(包括由细胞间连接的动态变化所形成的微环境等)精确调控的过程。细胞因子及睾酮以自分泌、旁分泌的形式对该微环境中的细胞连接水平如:生殖细胞穿越血睾屏障(the blood-testis barrier,BTB)的开闭机制等进行调控,从而对精子的发生起到重要调节作用。本文讨论了各种因素对细胞间连接的自分泌、旁分泌调控方式的影响,并简要介绍了近腔细胞外质特化(apical ectoplasmic specialization,近腔ES)-BTB-半桥粒/基底膜功能调控轴模型在生精细胞穿越BTB及精子释放等生精过程中的作用,为人们进一步认识精子发生过程中细胞间联系的功能及其调控提供了新的视角。     

精子发生转录调控机制的研究进展

精子发生过程中的转录调控是由一系列基因表达和调控事件组成的复杂过程,影响精子的形成、质量和功能。转录调控过程介导与精子形成密切相关的基因,包括精子特异性基因、组蛋白基因和其他转录因子的基因表达。这些基因的表达和沉默受到转录因子、表观遗传修饰和非编码RNA等多种机制的调控。此外,转录调控在精子发生的不同阶段起着不同的作用,包括精原干细胞的自我更新和分化、精母细胞的减数分裂和精子细胞的变形成熟。深入理解精子发生中的转录调控机制对于研究精子形成的生物学过程、解析生育障碍的病理机制以及开发生育问题相关的治疗方法具有重要的意义。     

Inhibition of sperm production in mice by annexin V microinjected into seminiferous tubules: possible etiology of phagocytic clearance of apoptotic spermatogenic cells and male infertility

Many differentiating spermatogenic cells die by apoptosis during the process of mammalian spermatogenesis. However, very few apoptotic spermatogenic cells are detected by histological examination of the testis, probably due to the rapid elimination of dying cells by phagocytosis. Previous in vitro studies showed that Sertoli cells selectively phagocytose dying spermatogenic cells by recognizing the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylserine (PS), which is exposed to the surface of spermatogenic cells during apoptosis. We examined here whether PS-mediated phagocytosis of apoptotic spermatogenic cells occurs in vivo. For this purpose, the PS-binding protein annexin V was microinjected into the seminiferous tubules of normal live mice, and their testes were examined. The injection of annexin V caused no histological changes in the testis, but significantly increased the number of apoptotic spermatogenic cells as assessed by the terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay. The number of Sertoli cells did not change in the annexin V-injected testes, and annexin V itself did not induce apoptosis in primary cultured spermatogenic cells. These results indicate that annexin V inhibited the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic spermatogenic cells and suggest that PS-mediated phagocytosis of those cells occurs in vivo. Furthermore, the injection of annexin V into the seminiferous tubules brought about a significant reduction in the number of spermatogenic cells and epididymal sperm in anticancer drug-treated mice. This suggests that the elimination of apoptotic spermatogenic cells is required for the production of sperm.     

Diethylstilbestrol induces rat spermatogenic cell apoptosis in vivo through increased expression of spermatogenic cell Fas/FasL system

The significant role that estrogens play in spermatogenesis has opened up an exciting area of research in male reproductive biology. The realization that estrogens are essential for proper maintenance of spermatogenesis, as well as growing evidence pointing to the deleterious effects of estrogen-like chemicals on male reproductive health, has made it imperative to dissect the role estrogens play in the male. Using a model estrogen, diethylstilbestrol (DES), to induce spermatogenic cell apoptosis in vivo in the male rat, we provide a new insight into an estrogen-dependent regulation of the Fas-FasL system specifically in spermatogenic cells. We show a distinct increase in Fas-FasL expression in spermatogenic cells upon exposure to diethylstilbestrol. This increase is confined to the spermatid population, which correlates with increased apoptosis seen in the haploid cells. Testosterone supplementation is able to prevent DES-induced Fas-FasL up-regulation and apoptosis in the spermatogenic cells. DES-induced germ cell apoptosis does not occur in Fas-deficient lpr mice. One other important finding is that spermatogenic cells are type II cells, as the increase in Fas-FasL expression in the spermatogenic cells is followed by the cleavage of caspase-8 to its active form, following which Bax translocates to the mitochondria and precipitates the release of cytochrome c that is accompanied by a drop in mitochondrial potential. Subsequent to this, activation of caspase-9 occurs that in turn activates caspase-3 leading to the cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Taken together, the data indicate that estrogen-like chemicals can precipitate apoptotic death in spermatogenic cells by increasing the expression of spermatogenic cell Fas-FasL, thus initiating apoptosis in the same lineage of cells through the activation of the apoptotic pathway chosen by type II cells.     

Suppression of cytochrome c release and apoptosis in testes with heat stress by minocycline

Spermatogenic cells are susceptible to heat stress and undergo apoptosis. Although a variety of factors appear to be involved in the apoptotic process, the nature of the intracellular signaling pathway is ambiguous. To clarify the process, we chose a simple model in which testes of mice were exposed to mild heating by immersion in hot water at 42 degrees C for 15 min. In situ DNA fragmentation was detected by a TUNEL method. The release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm was observed by Western blotting both in heat-treated testis and in isolated spermatogenic cells that had been incubated at 42 degrees C for 1h, but not in Sertoli cells. Minocycline, a semisynthetic tetracycline, is known to reach the brain by permeating the blood-brain barrier and suppresses apoptosis in neuronal cells. Since the testis also has a similar barrier, minocycline was examined as a possible agent to inhibit heat stress-induced apoptosis. The results indicate that minocycline suppressed the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria both in vivo and in vitro and significantly decreased the number of TUNEL-positive cells. These findings suggest that heat stress of testes triggers the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria in spermatogenic cells, leading to the activation of an apoptotic pathway.     

The role of Sertoli cells in the differentiation and exclusion of rat testicular germ cells in primary culture

We have previously established a primary co-culture of spermatogenic and somatic cells of the rat testis, in which spermatogenic cells differentiate to some extent in terms of the occurrence of testis-specific gene expression. In the present study, the interaction between spermatogenic and somatic Sertoli cells was investigated in this culture system. Spermatogenic differentiation did not proceed when these two cell types were placed on opposite sides of a permeable membrane, thus avoiding direct contact. Further, a significant proportion of spermatogenic cells died by apoptosis during culture, and Sertoli cells engulfed and digested the degenerating spermatogenic cells. These results indicate that Sertoli cells participate both in the differentiation of spermatogenic cells and in the exclusion of degenerating spermatogenic cells, by directly attaching to those cells.     

Apoptosis during spermatogenesis: the thrill of being alive

Emerging clues about the apoptotic molecular mechanisms operating during spermatogenesis indicate that the activation mechanism of executioner caspases may diverge from the traditional signaling operating in the immune system. Two issues are now been debated: (1) Whether the massive apoptosis of spermatogenic cells observed during the first spermatogenic wave represents a mechanism for ensuring the steady state sperm output in a given segment of a seminiferous tubule. (2) Whether apoptosis just represents a local remodeling process commanded by the Sertoli cell constraints to satisfy the differentiation needs of a juxtaposed cellular domain of spermatogonial, spermatocyte, and spermatid cohorts in the adult testis.     

Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) induces testicular alterations in male guinea pigs at prepubertal stage

We have recently shown that MEHP induces spermatogenic cell apoptosis in guinea pigs at prepubertal stage in vitro. To evaluate the effects of MEHP on the testicular tissues of guinea pigs in vivo, we conducted this research work. Five weeks old male guinea pigs were used in this experiment. They received a single oral dose of 2000 mg/ml of MEHP in corn oil by gavage at a volume equal to 4 ml/kg. Control group received a similar volume of corn oil vehicle. Vehicle- and MEHP-treated guinea pigs were sacrificed at the interval of 3, 6, and 9 h, and the testicular tissues were processed for histopathological studies. Distinct histopathological changes were recognized in testes. Detachment and displacement of spermatogenic cells, thin seminiferous epithelia, vacuolization of Sertoli cells were prominent at 6 h after MEHP treatment. The lumina of the efferent ductules were frequently occupied with sloughed seminiferous epithelia from 6 to 9 h after MEHP treatment. Apoptotic spermatogenic cells appeared at 3 h in the control group. The incidence of apoptotic spermatogenic cells significantly increased (*p<0.05) from 3 to 9 h, and the maximal increase of apoptotic spermatogenic cells were observed at 9 h after MEHP treatment. Time-dependent increases of apoptotic spermatogenic cells was recognized throughout the experimental period. It may be suggested here that MEHP also induces spermatogenic cell apoptosis in guinea pigs in vivo and guinea pigs may be considered as a useful animal model for sensitivity test of the reproductive toxicity to some phthalate esters at their earlier stage in vivo.