Occupational Stress in Veterinary Nurses: Roles of the Work Environment and Own Companion Animal

ABSTRACT

Veterinary nursing has been identified as an occupation at risk for occupational stress and burnout, but a better understanding of job stressors and influencing factors is needed. The aim of this study was to examine occupational stress in a veterinary nursing population based on established work stress theories. This study sought to determine which environmental aspects of the work situation may be detrimental to well-being and which factors may operate to reduce job stress. A sample of South Australian veterinary nurses (n = 127) completed a postal questionnaire about their work environment (job demands and control, work social supports) and their psychological distress, work burnout, and job satisfaction, with a response rate of 76.5%. The potential influence of attachment to participants' own companion animals was investigated using the Owner Pet Relationship Scale. Hierarchical regressions then explored the contribution to psychological outcomes, of social support at work and attachment to own companion animal, after controlling for work load, exposure to euthanasia, contact with clients, work demands, and work control. While social support at work ameliorated occupational stress, attachment to companion animal was linked to decreased job satisfaction. Supportive interpersonal relations in the workplace have a key role in veterinary nurses' job satisfaction. Management skill training may have a role in the development of more satisfying workplaces for the veterinary nursing sector, which may have implications for the undergraduate and post-registration training of veterinary practice managers.     

The Use of Positive Reinforcement in Training Zebra Sharks (Stegostoma fasciatum)

Few studies have examined how personality traits may be related to the amounts and types of attachments humans have toward companion animals (pets). In this study, 1,098 companion animal guardians (owners) completed a survey that included the Big Five Inventory, the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale, and the Pet Attachment Questionnaire. Each participant chose whether he or she identified as a Cat Person, Dog Person, Both, or Neither. Results indicated that neuroticism, conscientiousness, choosing a dog as a favorite pet, and identifying as a Cat Person, Dog Person, or Both predicted affection for a pet. Conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness decreased avoidant attachment to pets, and neuroticism increased anxious attachment to pets. Both dogs and cats could benefit from pet owners who are conscientious, and there may be some benefits of neuroticism in pet owners. The findings of this study will advance understanding of the human–animal bond. As this understanding increases, measurements of human attachment and personality may be useful for the development of tools that could assist shelter employees and veterinarians in counseling people about pet ownership.     

Measuring the Strength of Human–Animal Bonds in Zoos

Repeated interactions within individual human and animal dyads can lead to the establishment of human–animal relationships (HARs), which may vary in quality from good to bad, defined in terms of the positivity (e.g., friendly contact, play) or negativity (e.g., aggression) of the interactions on which they are based. Particularly good HARs can be regarded as Human– Animal Bonds (HABs) if they are reciprocal and promote wellbeing in both parties. Although there is extensive evidence of the effects of HARs in agricultural animals and HABs in companion animals, there has been less investigation of these relationships in zoos, even though the development of HARs/HABs between zoo animals and their keepers could have important consequences for the welfare of both. Here we apply a modified version of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) in a zoo setting to quantify the strength of attachment of a sample of 22 keepers to the animals in their care at the zoo (ZA), in comparison with their attachment to their companion animals at home (PA). Results showed that mean PA scores (47.54 ± 3.6) were significantly higher than mean ZA scores (32.89 ± 2.6; t = –5.16, df = 13, p < 0.001), indicating stronger attachment to the companion animals. PA scores were lower in keepers who thought it inappropriate to have a bond with a zoo animal, compared with those who deemed it appropriate. Thus, HABs do appear to occur in the zoo context, though they are weaker than those developed in the home. This work also shows that a modified LAPS questionnaire is a suitable instrument for further investigation of HABs in zoos.     

Children Love Their Pets: Do Relationships between Children and Pets Co-vary with Taxonomic Order,Gender, and Age?

Generally, children love their pets. However, a deeper insight into the beneficial effects of pets on the physical, psychological, and social wellbeing and development of children is needed. This study investigated whether children have more intense relationships with animals which are behaviorally similar to humans (according to the scala naturae), and whether the relationship patterns between 11- to 14-year-old children (n = 72) and their pets differ from those in prepubescent children, between 6 and 10 years of age (n = 84). We also investigated whether pet-relationship quality is associated with children’s age, gender, and number of siblings. Data about individual bonding type and attachment quality between the children and their pet were collected using a questionnaire. The results indicate that the younger children’s relationships clearly co-varied with taxonomic order of the pet. In contrast, 11- to 14-year-old children reported similarly high scores of attachment with their mouse or iguana as with their dog or cat, and the relationship patterns did not co-vary with taxonomic order. Gender effects on relationship quality were found in both age groups; especially girls reported intense relationships with their pets. In addition to gender, children without siblings had stronger attachment to their pet than children who had siblings. Our data suggest that young children develop high-quality relationships with pets, particularly those which are taxonomically closely related, such as dogs and cats, and less so with other pet species, such as birds or fish. Older children were also able to strongly attach to other pet species. We argue that mental relationship representations change during puberty and that older (11- to 14-year-old) children may no longer make attachments to pets based on them being behaviorally similar to people.     

Do Men Underreport and Mask Their Emotional Attachment to Animal Companions? The Influence of Precarious Masculinity on Men’s Bonds with Their Dogs

Males’ underreporting of psychological issues, physical symptoms, and personal information is commonplace both in medical and psychological settings in North America. One explanation for this occurrence is men that endorse traditional forms of masculine gender roles underreport or mask their symptoms to avoid being perceived as less masculine. In a similar way, the thesis of the current study was males may also mask and underreport the strength of attachment to their animal companions due to masculinity concerns. These males may also have more difficulty explaining why the bond is of importance. To address these notions, we developed the Human–Animal Interaction Conflicts scale (HAIC) consisting of two psychometrically sound subscales that measure conflicts male owners may have related to their pets. The first subscale involves limiting affection conflict (LAC), which measures underreporting or masking affectionate behavior around animal companions. The second entails conflict explaining the importance of the bond (EBC), which results in males not providing clear or accurate remarks when attempting to describe the bond’s significance. The results from linear regressions analyses support the hypothesis that males endorsing traditional forms of masculine gender (as measured by the Precarious Masculinity Scale) underreport or mask their affectionate behaviors toward animal companions. Similarly, these same men also report more difficulty placing into words the bond they have with their dogs. The current study not only has implications for mental health and medical providers but may also help explain past research where males self-report lower levels of attachment to dogs.     

Companion Animals in Obituaries: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT

The benefits of human–animal interaction have been discussed extensively in the literature. In this paper we take a slightly different strategy in documenting that some humans acknowledge the importance of pets by actually referring to them in human obituaries. We begin with a brief overview of the human obituary, followed by the potential for pets as fictive kin to be named as survivors in obituaries. A bi-national, exploratory, content analysis of companion animal (CA)-related content in published newspaper obituaries is reported. The two criteria for inclusion were that a pet or pet survivors be named in the obituary or that donations be made to a pet-related charity. Of the 11,818 obituaries in three newspapers over a three-month period, 260 (2.2%) met one or both of these criteria. Five themes emerged within obituaries containing CA data. First, the word “pet” was rarely used. CAs were typically listed as survivors along with human family members. Second, terms of endearment were consistently used to describe animal companions left behind. Third, some family members, who likely crafted these last statements about their loved ones, engaged in a personification of (and projections onto) the animals left behind. Fourth, there was variation in the roles played by each person with their animal companion. And fifth, donations were made to a wide variety of animal charities. The possibility of CAs as fictive kin is explored, in addition to a call for further study.     

Characterizing the Data in Online Companion-dog Obituaries to Assess Their Usefulness as a Source of Information about Human–Animal Bonds

Online pet obituary sites host hundreds of obituaries regarding the passing of companion animals. Often composed by the owner or primary caretaker of the animal, they are a potential source of data about human–animal bonds where there were strong positive human emotions surrounding the animal at point of death. The aim of the present study was to characterize on-line pet obituaries and to evaluate their usefulness as a source of information on the human–animal bond. One hundred and thirty full obituaries of dogs were studied. Where the role of the writer could be identified, the majority of obituary writers identified themselves as a female parental figure to the dog (34.6%); however, obituaries were also written by male parental figures (7.7%) and children (5.4%). Most obituaries (60%) fell within the 100-400 words length range. Obituaries were seen to express several key concepts. For instance, dogs were described as “child-like,” “part of the family,” showing “sympathy” and/or “gratitude” to the owner, and having a “sense of humor.” For their part, writers expressed “guilt” over the dog’s death, discussed a concept of the “afterlife” and noted an “instant connection” between themselves and the dog. A high proportion of the obituaries discussed the afterlife (51%) and indicated that the dog was considered part of the family (49%). There were some significant associations between concept usage within obituaries. Dogs that were described as “child-like” were more often perceived to be in an “afterlife” and to have had an “instant connection” with obituary writers (x² = 38.08, p < 0.001). We conclude that online pet obituaries can be a valuable source of information on human feelings surrounding a companion animal death.     

Psychological Mechanisms Predicting Wellbeing in Pet Owners: Rogers’ Core Conditions versus Bowlby’s Attachment

While pet ownership may confer physical and psychological health benefits, existing research presents inconsistent findings, and the psychological mechanisms through which health benefits might be conferred are unknown. Exploring human–pet relationships from the perspectives of Bowlby’s attachment theory, namely “attachment-related anxiety” and “attachment-related avoidance,” and Rogers’ core conditions including “unconditional positive regard” and “empathy” may highlight the psychological mechanisms involved. This study compared quality of life (QOL) and psychopathology in pet owners with those without pets. In the pet owners, we additionally assessed pet attachment, and perceived empathy, unconditionality, and congruence in the human–pet relationships. We then compared the relative value of Bowlby’s attachment versus Rogers’ core conditions in human– pet relationships as predictors of wellbeing in pet owners. Overall, pet owners and non-pet owners did not significantly differ in terms of QOL or psychopathology. However, in pet owners, secure pet attachments were associated with lower psychological distress and psychopathology, and those perceiving higher levels of Rogers’ core conditions from their pets had higher QOL. Bowlby’s pet attachment insecurity predicted psychological distress and psychopathology, while Rogers’ total core conditions in pets were significantly predictive of QOL of owners. Differences in wellbeing may not be reliably discernable between pet owners and non-pet owners, as wellbeing is related not to pet ownership alone but to qualities of individual human–pet relationships. The results provide new information about psychological mechanisms through which human–pet interactions are conferred, and support for the applicability of both Bowlby’s and Rogers’ concepts.     

Why Do People Feed Free-roaming Cats? The Role of Anticipated Regret in an Extended Theory of Planned Behavior in Malaysia

Free-roaming cats are common in residential and public areas in Malaysia and approach people for food. However, the psychological determinants of public feeding are unknown. This study investigated public perceptions of feeding free-roaming cats, based on an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB). It consisted of qualitative belief-elicitation interviews with 25 participants, followed by a quantitative survey of 167 participants, representative of the country’s population. The majority (87.2%) of the sample had fed free-roaming cats. The mean intention score (4.88 out of 7) indicated the public was likely, and would make an effort, to feed free-roaming cats in the future. The public’s benevolence toward animals largely explained the findings, based on generally positive attitudes and perceptions of moderate social credence and capability and confidence, underpinned by affective and cognitive beliefs. An important finding was the role of anticipated regret in predicting and explaining intentions, which contributed variance over and above that explained by the TPB constructs. The extended framework is explained by the influence of anticipated regret on the perceived evaluation of potential TPB outcomes, which in turn leads to the behavior becoming less volitional. Therefore, future TPB studies of people’s interactions with animals, such as free-roaming cats, should take account of affective and emotional antecedents of behavior, such as anticipated regret, to improve explanatory power. The study also has implications for managing public feeding of free-roaming cats, such as drawing on and strengthening the Malaysian public’s positive attitudes and emotional concern to redirect current feeding practices toward more constructive animal welfare initiatives. Such humane approaches align with the public’s sensitivity toward animal welfare and the historical development of cat population control from lethal methods to humane non-lethal methods to ensure adequate care.     

Assistance dog placement in the pediatric population: Benefits,risks, and recommendations for future application

Abstract

Assistance animals have long been recognized for their value in enhancing the lives of adults with disabilities by increasing the physical independence, confidence, and social lives of their handlers. Recently, this concept has been applied to the growing population of children with physical disabilities and developmental impairments, though the benefits and risks of these placements have not been thoroughly assessed. Our study used interviews to evaluate the outcome of placing assistance dogs in the pediatric population, looking specifically at the unique advantages and disadvantages of this application of the human–animal bond. We administered a structured interview assessing risks and benefits of assistance dog relationships to 17 families with a child under 18 years who graduated from a single provider (NEADS) over a five-year time period. Benefits were found in 88% of families, and were overwhelmingly social and cognitive, with additional physical and medical benefits for the pediatric client. However, risks, including behavioral, financial, and time/cost issues were significant, becoming a burden in 53% of families. Perhaps more than with adult placements, we found that it was of prime importance to understand the assistance animal in the context of the family, rather than just in relation to the individual with a disability. It is hoped that results of this and future studies will enhance the welfare of both client and assistance animal, as well as the overall success of this unique human–animal relationship.     

Looking After Chronically III Dogs: Impacts on the Caregiver's Life

ABSTRACT

Studies in human medicine show that care of chronically ill family members can affect the caregiver's life in several ways and cause “caregiver burden.” Companion animals are offered increasingly advanced veterinary treatments, sometimes involving home care. Owners choosing such treatments could thus face similar challenges when caring for their animals. This qualitative study uncovers impacts on an owner's life, when attending to the care of an aged or chronically ill dog and reflects on the differing roles of caregivers with animal and human patients. Twelve dog owners were selected for in-depth interviews based on the dogs' diagnoses, and the choice of treatments and care expected to affect the owner's life. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed qualitatively. The dog owners reported several changes in their lives due to their dog's condition: practicalities like extra care, changes in use of the home, and restrictions relating to work, social life, and finances. These were time-consuming, tough, and annoying, but could often be dealt with through planning and prioritizing. Changes in the human–dog relationship and activities caused sadness and frustration, which in turn led to feelings of guilt, and in some cases created a feeling of loss. Also, concerns about the progress of the dog's condition, it's welfare, and euthanasia brought emotional distress and many doubts. The owners did, however, respond to the changes differently and as a result experienced different effects on their own life. This study confirms that the situations of caregivers with human and animal patients are in some ways similar, yet the study also identifies and reflects on some of the differences. These include the caregiver role and the options of assistance as well as euthanasia. Veterinary staff are urged to inform owners about possible impacts on their lives when considering careconsuming treatments, and to be aware of the need for support during treatment as well as in decisions about euthanasia.