Applied Ethics in Animal Research: Philosophy,Regulations, and Laboratory Applications Edited by John P. Gluck,Tony DiPasquale,and F. Barbara Orlans

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to test if dolphin-assisted therapy could be an effective therapeutic intervention for children with significant social and communication disabilities. Furthermore, it was crucial to determine the relative importance of the dolphin and the parent consultation factors implicit in the therapy. The method employed was a before-and-after comparison of three control groups and one experimental group. In the experimental group, all three aspects of the therapeutic intervention—interaction with dolphins, parent counseling and a curative, relaxed environment—were included. Control group 1 (outpatient therapy group) was limited to just interaction with dolphins. In control group 2 (farm animal group), the parents were counseled after the children interacted with farm animals (which replaced dolphins). Control group 3 received no treatment. The post-treatment parent questionnaire results revealed therapeutic success in the areas of both productive and receptive language, processing of non-verbal cues, social skills, and self-confidence. Observations of parent–child interaction indicated that after treatment in the experimental group, interactions of children could be interpreted more accurately, on a long-term basis. The discovered therapeutic effects occurred regardless of whether the children were in the water during therapy or not.     

Behavior of dolphins towards adults and children during swim-with-dolphin programs and towards children with disabilities during therapy sessions

Abstract

In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular and an increasing number of facilities worldwide offer therapy programs with dolphins. In contrast to other animal-assisted therapy programs, dolphins are not domestic animals; they are mostly caught in the wild and there are still no studies on their behavior during these therapies. However, there is speculation that the behavior of dolphins toward people with mental and physical disabilities may play an important role in the success of the therapy. We observed 83 sessions with five untrained dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at Dolphins Plus, a fenced area with ocean water in the Florida Keys, USA. Our detailed observations of contact and distance behavior between dolphins and different groups of swimmers (adults, children, and children with mental and physical disabilities) show that, in general, dolphins prefer small humans to adults. One dolphin showed a clear preference toward children with mental and physical disabilities, and we conclude that she showed assisting behavior.     

Exploring the Relation of Harsh Parental Discipline with Child Emotional and Behavioral Problems by Using Multiple Informants. The Generation R Study

Parental harsh disciplining, like corporal punishment, has consistently been associated with adverse mental health outcomes in children. It remains a challenge to accurately assess the consequences of harsh discipline, as researchers and clinicians generally rely on parent report of young children''s problem behaviors. If parents rate their parenting styles and their child''s behavior this may bias results. The use of child self-report on problem behaviors is not common but may provide extra information about the relation of harsh parental discipline and problem behavior. We examined the independent contribution of young children''s self-report above parental report of emotional and behavioral problems in a study of maternal and paternal harsh discipline in a birth cohort. Maternal and paternal harsh discipline predicted both parent reported behavioral and parent reported emotional problems, but only child reported behavioral problems. Associations were not explained by pre-existing behavioral problems at age 3. Importantly, the association with child reported outcomes was independent from parent reported problem behavior. These results suggest that young children''s self-reports of behavioral problems provide unique information on the effects of harsh parental discipline. Inclusion of child self-reports can therefore help estimate the effects of harsh parental discipline more accurately.     

Effectiveness of Short-Term Dolphin-Assisted Therapy for Children with Severe Disabilities

ABSTRACT

The effectiveness of two week dolphin-assisted therapy was compared to the effectiveness of six month conventional physical and speech-language therapy. Data were analyzed using a multiple baseline single subject across settings design, for 47 children with severe disabilities (20 females, 27 males), of multiple etiologies. Children were placed in a physical therapy group (n = 17, mean age = 6 years, 8 months) and a speech language group (n = 30, mean age = 6 years 5 months). Standardized charting procedures were used to measure acquisition of independent motor and speech-language skills. Use of t tests for nonindependent samples indicates that relative to conventional long-term therapy, dolphin-assisted therapy, as practiced by Dolphin Human Therapy, achieves positive results more quickly and is also more cost effective.     

Parents' Socializing Behavior and Children's Participation in Math,Science, and Computer Out-of-School Activities

This study examined associations between multiple parental behaviors and children's participation in out-of-school math, science, and computer activities for children in 2nd (n = 125), 3rd (n = 123), and 5th grade (n = 200). Mothers and fathers reported how often they encouraged their children's activities, participated in activities with their child, provided activity-related materials, and participated in activities themselves, as well as how often their children participated in activities. The youth described how often they participated in math, science, and computer activities. Results indicate that parents' behavior is a strong, positive predictor of children's participation. Although there were significant mean level gender differences, relations between parents' behavior and children's participation were similar for boys and girls.     

Impact of different groups of swimmers on dolphins in swim-with-the-dolphin programs in two settings

Abstract

In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular, and an increasing number of facilities worldwide are offering therapy programs that incorporate dolphins. We observed 83 sessions with five dolphins at “Dolphins Plus,” USA, and 37 sessions with 13 dolphins at “Dolphin Reef.” Israel, during unstructured swim-with-the-dolphin programs. Both facilities are fenced sea pens with ocean water. Our detailed observations focused on contact and distance behaviors between dolphins and amongst dolphins with different groups of human swimmers: adults, children and children with mental and physical disabilities at “Dolphins Plus,” and adults only at “Dolphin Reef.” The dolphins at “Dolphins Plus” showed some signs of stress such as avoidance, speed increase, higher metabolism and intensification of a subgroup. These signs were most evident when the dolphins were with adult swimmers. In contrast, the dolphins at “Dolphin Reef” seemed to be attracted to adult swimmers. We will discuss these opposing findings with reference to the different housing conditions. Our results indicate that limited space results in a reduction of the dolphins' attraction for swimmers.     

Associations between multiple measures of parental feeding and children's adiposity in United Kingdom preschoolers

Objective: Research into the association between parental control over feeding and children's adiposity has produced inconclusive results. Some studies have found parental control to be associated with unhealthy food choices and disordered intake regulation, whereas others have found favorable or null associations between control and adiposity. This study hypothesized that variability in measures of parental feeding could contribute to these discrepancies. Scales from a range of existing parental feeding questionnaires were used together, in the same large sample of children, to examine associations with adiposity. Research Methods and Procedures: Associations between scores on scales from three published parental feeding questionnaires [Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ); Preschooler Feeding Questionnaire (PFQ); and Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire (PFSQ)] and children's BMI z‐scores, calculated from measured heights and weights, were examined in a socioeconomically diverse sample of 439 parents and their 3‐ to 5‐year‐old children. Results: Higher scores on CFQ Pressure to Eat and PFQ Pushing the Child to Eat More were significantly associated with lower BMI z‐score, while PFSQ Prompting to Eat, CFQ Restriction, PFSQ Instrumental Feeding, and PFSQ Emotional Feeding were unassociated with BMI z‐score. Discussion: These results suggest that parents of leaner children are more likely to encourage their children to eat. Other feeding strategies seemed to have negligible relationships with children's BMI z‐scores at this stage. Longitudinal and genetically informed designs are needed to clarify the causal pathways between parental feeding and children's adiposity.     

The Educational Benefits of a Ten-Week Home-Based Wild Bird Feeding Program for Children

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated a ten-week educational home-based program for feeding wild birds, intended to increase elementary school age children's knowledge about birds, especially those wild birds commonly encountered at outdoor home feeders. We measured changes from pre- to post-program in 65 seven- to 12-year old children's knowledge about wild birds, as well as in environmental attitudes. The goal was not only to increase bird knowledge in the target child but also to involve other family members in home-based nature education activities. After the program, seven- to nine-year old boys and girls showed significant gains in bird knowledge, but older children (10–12 years) did not significantly improve. Children's increased knowledge was positively associated with parental education. There was no systematic change in environmental attitudes. Parents identified family involvement as a particularly beneficial aspect of the program, and 90% of contacted families were still feeding birds one year after program termination.     

Parents' knowledge of students' beliefs and attitudes: An indirect assay of parental solicitude?

In two studies, undergraduates filled out questionnaires containing various attitude and belief items, and their parents then provided both their own responses to the same items and their best guesses as to how their children had responded. As predicted, stepfathers were significantly less accurate then genetic fathers, and maternal accuracy increased as a function of the mother's age when her child was born. On average, mothers and fathers did not differ in accuracy, nor was offspring sex a significant predictor of parental accuracy. However, mothers were most accurate in guessing the views of firstborn sons, whereas fathers tended to be more accurate about daughters' views. These results suggest that parents' ability to guess their children's views may provide a useful index of parental interest and/or of parent-child closeness.     

A new mother-child play activity program to decrease parenting stress and improve child cognitive abilities: a cluster randomized controlled trial

Background

We propose a new play activity intervention program for mothers and children. Our interdisciplinary program integrates four fields of child-related sciences: neuroscience, preschool pedagogy, developmental psychology, and child and maternal psychiatry. To determine the effect of this intervention on child and mother psychosocial problems related to parenting stress and on the children''s cognitive abilities, we performed a cluster randomized controlled trial.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Participants were 238 pairs of mothers and typically developing preschool children (ages 4–6 years old) from Wakakusa kindergarten in Japan. The pairs were asked to play at home for about 10 min a day, 5 days a week for 3 months. Participants were randomly assigned to the intervention or control group by class unit. The Parenting Stress Index (PSI) (for mothers), the Goodenough Draw-a-Man intelligence test (DAM), and the new S-S intelligence test (NS-SIT) (for children) were administered prior to and 3 months after the intervention period. Pre–post changes in test scores were compared between the groups using a linear mixed-effects model analysis. The primary outcomes were the Total score on the child domain of the PSI (for child psychosocial problems related to parenting stress), Total score on the parent domain of the PSI (for maternal psychosocial problems related to parenting stress), and the score on the DAM (for child cognitive abilities). The results of the PSI suggested that the program may reduce parenting stress. The results of the cognitive tests suggested that the program may improve the children''s fluid intelligence, working memory, and processing speed.

Conclusions/Significance

Our intervention program may ameliorate the children''s psychosocial problems related to parenting stress and increase their cognitive abilities.

Trial Registration

UMIN Clinical Trials Registry UMIN000002265     

Influence of parents' eating behaviors and child feeding practices on children's weight status

Objective : To investigate the effects of mothers’ and fathers’ eating behaviors, child feeding practices, and BMI on percentage body fat and BMI in their children. Research Methods and Procedures : Four hundred fifty‐eight parents (239 mothers, 219 fathers) were asked to complete two questionnaires: the Three‐Factor Eating Questionnaire and the Child Feeding Questionnaire, which measure dimensions of parent eating behavior and child feeding practices, respectively. Parent BMI was calculated from self‐reported height and weight; children's measures included BMI and percentage fat assessed by DXA. Regression analyses were used to analyze relationships between parents’ BMI and questionnaire scores and children's weight status. Results : One hundred forty‐three mothers and 68 fathers returned questionnaires, representing parents of 148 children 3 to 5 years old (78 boys). Children's weight was related to mothers’ BMI, but not fathers’. Girls had a greater BMI if either parent reported being overweight as a child, and both girls and boys were likely to be overweight if their mothers believed they had risky eating habits (fussiness, eating too much, etc.). Girls with fathers who were more controlling had a higher percentage fat; these fathers were also more concerned about their daughters’ future health. Discussion : Mothers exert a strong influence over their children's weight and seem to be more concerned about their children's eating behaviors; however, fathers play a role in imposing child feeding practices. Gender bias may be present in child feeding, as suggested by dissimilar effects of parent practices on the weight status of girls vs. boys. Fathers should be included in future studies analyzing parent feeding practices and children's weight outcome.     

The Effect of Dolphin-Assisted Therapy on the Cognitive and Social Development of Children with Down Syndrome

Cognitive and speech development are delayed in children with Down syndrome (DS). We investigated the effect of dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT), a form of animal-assisted intervention, on the development of speech/language and social behavior in children with DS. We hypothesized that DAT would improve the social and cognitive functions with respect to verbalization and thereby promote task performance. A semi-crossover design was used to study 45 children with DS: 18 received a weekly one-hour session of DAT for 6 weeks (group A), 12 children (group B) started with swimming pool sessions (control period of 6 weeks) and thereafter received DAT, and 17 children (group C) were put on a waiting list (control period of 6 weeks) before receiving DAT. The parameters “verbalization,” “impulsiveness,” “proper understanding of rules,” “recognition of persons,” and “establishing contacts” were measured using the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills for Individuals with Severe Retardation (MESSIER) before and after DAT, as well as before and after each of the control periods. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant changes for any of the variables during the control periods (swimming pool, waiting list). Following the period of DAT there was a significant improvement in “verbalization” and “recognition of persons,” while “impulsiveness” decreased. No significant changes were found for the other parameters. “Verbalization” continued to increase during the follow-up period of 6 months, while “recognition of persons” slightly decreased. The results of this study provide support for our hypothesis. Through improvements in verbalization and the recognition of persons, the execution of tasks among children with DS receiving DAT improved. Additional studies are needed to determine if these positive effects of DAT are long-term.     

Neural Activity during Natural Viewing of Sesame Street Statistically Predicts Test Scores in Early Childhood

It is not currently possible to measure the real-world thought process that a child has while observing an actual school lesson. However, if it could be done, children''s neural processes would presumably be predictive of what they know. Such neural measures would shed new light on children''s real-world thought. Toward that goal, this study examines neural processes that are evoked naturalistically, during educational television viewing. Children and adults all watched the same Sesame Street video during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Whole-brain intersubject correlations between the neural timeseries from each child and a group of adults were used to derive maps of “neural maturity” for children. Neural maturity in the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), a region with a known role in basic numerical cognition, predicted children''s formal mathematics abilities. In contrast, neural maturity in Broca''s area correlated with children''s verbal abilities, consistent with prior language research. Our data show that children''s neural responses while watching complex real-world stimuli predict their cognitive abilities in a content-specific manner. This more ecologically natural paradigm, combined with the novel measure of “neural maturity,” provides a new method for studying real-world mathematics development in the brain.     

Mediators of Maternal Depression and Family Structure on Child BMI: Parenting Quality and Risk Factors for Child Overweight

Risk factors for child obesity may be influenced by family environment, including maternal depression, family structure, and parenting quality. We tested a path model in which maternal depression and single parent status are associated with parenting quality, which relates to three risk factors for child obesity: diet, leisure, and sedentary behavior. Participants included 4,601 5th‐grade children and their primary caregivers who participated in the Healthy Passages study. Results showed that associations of maternal depression and single parenthood with child BMI are mediated by parenting quality and its relation to children's leisure activity and sedentary behavior. Interventions for child obesity may be more successful if they target family environment, particularly parenting quality and its impact on children's active and sedentary behaviors.     

Long-Term Effectiveness of Dolphin-Assisted Therapy for Children with Severe Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Long-term effectiveness of dolphin assisted therapy, as practiced by Dolphin Human Therapy, was analyzed via a 15 item closed form, ratio scale parent questionnaire (n=71). Children with severe disabilities of many etiologies, from eight countries, received either one or two weeks of therapy in the multidisciplinary, behavior modification program. Results on three clinical issues were analyzed. First, children maintained or improved skills acquired in therapy about 50% of the time even after 12 months away from therapy. Second, no difference in long-term effects occurred as a function of differences in three categories (genetic, brain damage, unknown causes) of etiology (ANOVA, F_(2,39)=2.79, p>0.05). Third, two weeks of therapy produced significantly better long-term results than did one week of therapy (t=3.105, df=28, p<0.01).     

Identification of an Obese Eating Style in 4‐year‐old Children Born at High and Low Risk for Obesity

This study tested whether children's eating behavior and parental feeding prompts during a laboratory test meal differ among children born at high risk (HR) or low risk (LR) for obesity and are associated with excess child weight gain. At 4 years of age, 32 HR children (mean maternal prepregnancy BMI = 30.4 kg/m²) and 29 LR children (maternal BMI = 19.6 kg/m²) consumed a test meal in which their eating behavior was assessed, including rate of caloric consumption, mouthfuls/min, and requests for food. Parental prompts for the child to eat also were measured at year 4, and child body composition was measured at ages 4 and 6 years. T‐tests, and logistic and multiple regression analyses tested study aims. Results indicated that HR and LR children did not differ in eating rate or parental feeding prompts. Greater maternal BMI, child mouthfuls of food/min, and total caloric intake/min during the test meal predicted an increased risk of being overweight or obese at age 6, whereas greater active mealtime was associated with a reduced risk of being overweight or obese. Regression analyses indicated that only mouthfuls of food/min predicted changes in BMI from 4 to 6 years, and mouthfuls of food/min and gender predicted 2‐year changes in sum of skinfolds and total body fat. Thus, a rapid eating style, characterized by increased mouthfuls of food/min, may be a behavioral marker for the development of childhood obesity.     

Does Arts Education Develop School Readiness? Teachers’ and Artists’ Points of View on an Art Education Project

More than 98 percent of children in Finland attend preschool, where different kinds of projects are carried out in order to strengthen the children's abilities. This article focuses on the effects of one arts education project from a school readiness point of view. The main question was, How did the Helsinki arts education project affect the children's learning skills and attitudes? The target groups were children aged three to nine years who participated in the arts project in day care centers and schools. A multidimensional evaluation method was used for the analyses. The research data consisted of interviews of the program artists and educators (n = 23), follow-up reports (n = 9), and other materials. The results show that the program motivated children and aroused their interest in thinking, problem-solving, practicing, and learning. It offered children opportunities to experience success, which increased their self-confidence and skills. The project also strengthened their abilities in listening, goal-oriented work, evaluating others’ work, and receiving feedback, which are all abilities required for school entrance. The subject matter of their school courses was also integrated into their achievements.     

Diurnal testosterone variability is differentially associated with parenting quality in mothers and fathers

Previous studies on the relation between testosterone (T) levels and parenting have found ample evidence for the challenge hypothesis, demonstrating that high T levels inhibit parental involvement and that becoming a parent is related to a decrease in T levels in both mothers and fathers. However, less is known about the relation between T levels and more qualitative aspects of parenting. In the current study we examined basal T levels and diurnal variability in T levels in relation to mothers' and fathers' parenting quality. Participants included 217 fathers and 124 mothers with two children (3 and 5 years of age). Evening and morning salivary T samples were analyzed with radio-immunoassays to determine circulating T levels. Parental sensitivity (i.e., child-centered responsiveness) and respect for children's autonomy were observed during free play in the family home. The results showed that higher evening T levels in mothers were associated with more sensitivity to the oldest and youngest child. Diurnal T variability was more consistently associated with parenting behavior towards their children than basal T levels. For fathers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with more sensitivity and more respect for autonomy with their youngest children. For mothers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with less sensitivity to both children and less respect for the youngest child's autonomy. These findings suggest that the T system might act differently in relation to parenting behavior in males and females.     

Effects of an insect‐mediated mental healthcare program for mentally disordered children

Insects are the most diverse groups of animals on the planet, representing more than one‐half of all known living organisms, and are found in nearly every environment. Recently, the importance of insects as food sources or as pets has increased in many countries, including Korea. In addition, several insects have been shown to exert a strong influence on people's emotions. Our insect‐mediated mental healthcare program is designed to help meet the physical, behavioral and developmental needs of people with mental disorders. Children with mental disorders, the experimental group, were provided with an insect‐mediated mental healthcare program for a total of eight sessions, one session per week, at 1–2 h per session, accompanied by a pre‐test and post‐test. The overall, gender, education level, and mental disease profiles of the participants in this study were balanced. Our results indicated that children who participated in the insect‐mediated healthcare program group once showed significant improvement in their emotional health and insect awareness. Additionally, paired education level's t‐tests showed that the outcomes of the participants in treatment group were significantly improved (α < 0.05). However, participants' satisfaction with their school life (middle school) was not influenced. These results suggest that insects positively influence children's emotional health through an insect‐mediated healthcare program. Further research on the basis of this study is expected to help children with emotional therapy in other areas.