Impacts of invasive biota in forest ecosystems in an aboveground–belowground context

Forest ecosystems world-wide are being subjected to invasion by organisms representing all domains of life. Here we use a combined aboveground-belowground approach to provide a conceptual framework for assessing how forests respond to biological invasions. We first address mechanisms by which invasive plants and aboveground and belowground consumers impact on forests, and highlight that although we have a growing understanding of the determinants of the effects of invasive plants, for invasive consumers we have yet to move from a series of iconic case studies to the development of general principles. We also address the effects of invasive biota in the context of the drivers of invasion, co-invasion and invasional meltdown, the issue of simultaneous species gains and losses, and forest restoration and recovery post-invasion. We then highlight areas that would benefit from further work, particularly regarding underlying mechanisms, determinants of context-dependency of invader effects, and linkages between causes and consequences of invasion. In concluding, we emphasize that biological invaders have the potential for large-scale and long-term impacts on forest processes, and consideration of these impacts in an aboveground-belowground context will enable better prediction of future responses of forests to invaders and their management as well as of restoration efforts.     

Linking aboveground and belowground diversity

Aboveground and belowground species interactions drive ecosystem properties at the local scale, but it is unclear how these relationships scale-up to regional and global scales. Here, we discuss our current knowledge of aboveground and belowground diversity links from a global to a local scale. Global diversity peaks towards the Equator for large, aboveground organisms, but not for small (mainly belowground) organisms, suggesting that there are size-related biodiversity gradients in global aboveground-belowground linkages. The generalization of aboveground-belowground diversity relationships, and their role in ecosystem functioning, requires surveys at scales that are relevant to the organisms and ecosystem properties. Habitat sizes and diversity gradients can differ significantly between aboveground and belowground organisms and between ecosystems. These gradients in biodiversity and plant community trait perception need to be acknowledged when studying aboveground-belowground biodiversity linkages.     

恢复生态学研究的一些基本问题探讨

对恢复生态学的研究概况、基本概念、内涵与研究内容以及生态恢复的目标、原则、程序与技术进行了分析与探讨。指出恢复生态学应加强基础理论研究(包括生态系统的演替理论及干扰条件下生态系统的受损过程与响应机制研究等)和应用技术研究(包括土壤、水体、大气和植被恢复技术、生物多样性保护技术以及生态系统的组装与集成技术等).生态恢复与重建是指根据生态学原理,通过一定的生物、生态以及工程的技术,人为地切断生态系统退化的主导因子和过程,调整和优化系统内部及其与外界的物质、能量和信息的流动过程及其时空秩序,使生态系统的结构、功能和生态学潜力尽快地成功地恢复到原有的乃至更高的水平。     

A Striking Profile: Soil Ecological Knowledge in Restoration Management and Science

Available evidence suggests that research in terrestrial restoration ecology has been dominated by the engineering and botanical sciences. Because restoration science is a relatively young discipline in ecology, the theoretical framework for this discipline is under development and new theoretical offerings appear regularly in the literature. In reviewing this literature, we observed an absence of in‐depth discussion of how soils, and in particular the ecology of soils, can be integrated into the developing theory of restoration science. These observations prompted us to assess the current role of soil ecological knowledge in restoration research and restoration practice. Although soils are universally regarded as critical to restoration success, and much research has included manipulations of soil variables, we found that better integration of soil ecological principles could still contribute much to the practice of ecosystem restoration. Here we offer four potential points of departure for increased dialog between restoration ecologists and soil ecologists. We hope to encourage the view that soil is a complex, heterogeneous, and vital entity and that adoption of this point of view can positively affect restoration efforts worldwide.     

恢复生态学焦点问题

就恢复生态学的概念、近期的发展趋势与前沿命题、传统生态学理论在生态恢复过程中的应用及恢复生态学的社会性等核心问题展开论述。恢复生态学是一门年轻的学科,迄今尚无统一的定义。代表性的有3方面的学术观点。第1种强调受损的生态系统要恢复到理想的状态;第2种强调其应用生态学过程;第3种强调生态整合性恢复。笔者认为,恢复生态学是研究生态系统退化的原因、退化生态系统恢复与重建的技术与方法、过程与机理的科学。从近年的国际恢复生态学大会来看,恢复生态学研究近期主要有3个方面的发展趋势。一是强调自然恢复与社会、人文的耦合。认为恢复生态是全球性的,不只是自然的过程,应有全社会的支持,包括政治、经济和人文的介入。二是强调无论是在地域上还是在理论上都要跨越边界。有效的生态恢复实践在地域上要求多地区甚至是多国家的合作,在理论上要求多学科的交叉与耦合。三是强调以生态系统为基点,在景观尺度表达。随着环境和经济问题的全球化,生态系统和景观尺度的恢复生态学研究引起了越来越多的关注。2004年第15届国际恢复生态学大会的会议主题已定为：恢复、景观与设计。在当前研究趋势的基础上,提出了恢复生态学当前研究的6个前沿命题：恢复生态学的学科理论框架研究、恢复生态系统的功益研究、生物多样性在生态恢复中的作用研究、生态恢复对全球变化的响应研究、生态恢复立法研究和生态恢复与社会、经济的整合性研究。退化生态系统的恢复与重建是一项十分复杂的系统工程,尤其需要生态学理论的指导。多数生态学理论已被应用于恢复生态学的研究与实践。结合实例,着重阐述了生态系统演替理论在生态恢复中的应用。恢复生态与全球变化间的相互作用研究越来越多的引起了人们的关注,但多数研究仍停滞在定性研究阶段。在广东的恢复生态学研究表明,广东省从1986年至1998年,植被覆盖从26％到51％,新造林绿化的植被每年可吸收、固定广东省年排放CO2量的一半。人类社会与自然环境的协调可持续发展,不仅要求实现生态环境的可持续,同时亦要求实现人类社会与经济的可持续发展。这就要求生态系统的恢复与重建必须同时实现生态、经济与社会效率的三重优化。中国科学院华南植物研究所生态中心在中国热带、南亚热带进行的退化生态系统的恢复与重建研究历时30余年,所产生的显著的经济和社会效益,在各个实验站点均已有所反映。     

景观生态学与退化生态系统恢复

退化生态系统的恢复是一项艰巨任务,它需要考虑到所要恢复的退化生态系统的结构,多样性和其动态的整体性和长期性。现在对于退化生态系统恢复研究已经要使生态学家们关注受损生态系统的理论和实际问题。退化生态系统恢复所面临的挑战是理解和利用生态演替理论来完成并加速恢复进程。恢复的主要目标是建立一个自维持的,由不同的群落或生态系统组成的能够满足不同需要如生物保护和粮食生产需要的景观。景观生态学关注于大的空间尺度的生态学问题。景观生态学研究方法可以为退化生态系统恢复实践提供指导。在解决退化生态系统的恢复问题时,景观生态学的方法在理论和实践上是有效的。景观生态学中的核心概念和其一般原理斑块形状、生态系统间相互作用、镶嵌系列等都同退化生态系统的恢复有着密切的关系。如恢复地点的选择和适当的恢复要素的空间配置。在评价退化生态系统的恢复是否取得成功,利用景观生态学也具有重要的意义。景观生态学理论如景观格局与景观异质性理论,干扰理论和尺度理论都能够指导退化生态系统的恢复实践。同样地,退化生态系统的恢复可以为景观生态学的研究提供非常恰当的实验场。寓景观生态学思想于退化生态系统恢复过程是一种新的有效途径。     

What's wrong with novel ecosystems,really?

The novel ecosystems concept has gained much traction in the restoration community. It has also drawn the ire of several prominent ecologists and is the focus of an ongoing debate. We consider three key aspects of this debate: irreversible thresholds, non‐native species, and the hybrid state. Irreversible thresholds have been acknowledged in restoration for years, but predicting when a threshold will be crossed and the degree of reversibility is problematic. Oftentimes reversibility is a function of multiple factors, such as cost and public support. In this sense, a novel ecosystem is not an alternate state but a decision. The need for pragmatism regarding control of non‐natives has also long been recognized in restoration circles. Proponents of the novel ecosystem idea adopt this pragmatism by recommending that management decisions be based on impacts conferred by species in altered ecosystems, regardless of their origin. The concept of a hybrid state has proven difficult to operationalize. We suggest that rather than trying to identify the boundary between hybrid and novel states, ecosystems exist on a gradient of alteration. We offer a decision tree for restoration action that integrates aspects of novel ecosystems with other perspectives in modern restoration ecology. We conclude that the idea of novel ecosystems, though not perfect, deserves a place under the “big tent” of restoration that includes efforts to return fully to a reference state, as well as strategies for reinstating lost ecological processes and enhancing ecosystem services in transformed landscapes where such a return is deemed infeasible.     

Invasive plants in conservation linkages: a conceptual model that addresses an underappreciated conservation issue

Conservationists have frequently touted the merits of increased landscape connectivity, usually focusing on the efficacy of conservation linkages (corridors) for maintaining viable populations of target species. An often‐mentioned, but still greatly understudied, concern is that increased landscape connectivity via linkages may also aid the movement of undesired species. This paper provides conceptual guidance for research on one major aspect of this gap: invasive plants in conservation linkages. To guide research goals and methods, I develop a conceptual model describing eight interaction types between invasive plants and linkages, i.e. the ways that invasive plants can exist in and move into, through, and out of conservation linkages. Each interaction type within the model has three main components: linkage, matrix, and focal species. I discuss several aspects of these components, including a) differentiating among matrix types, b) understanding edge effects within the linkages, and c) incorporating relevant invasive species’ ecology (primarily dispersal ecology). Spatially‐explicit documentation of invasive plant distribution is essential to understanding these interactions. By focusing on landscape‐scale patterns in real‐world systems, this model will enhance landscape‐level knowledge of invasion ecology and aid land managers in identifying and prioritizing research and management decisions regarding invasive plants in conservation linkages.     

A triage framework for managing novel,hybrid, and designed marine ecosystems

The novel ecosystem (NE) concept has been discussed in terrestrial restoration ecology over the last 15 years but has not yet found much traction in the marine context. Against a background of unprecedented environmental change, managers of natural marine resources have portfolios full of altered systems for which restoration to a previous historical baseline may be impractical for ecological, social, or financial reasons. In these cases, the NE concept is useful for weighing options and emphasizes the risk of doing nothing by forcing questions regarding the value of novelty and how it can best be managed in the marine realm. Here, we explore how the concept fits marine ecosystems. We propose a scheme regarding how the NE concept could be used as a triage framework for use in marine environments within the context of a decision framework that explicitly considers changed ecosystems and whether restoration is the best or only option. We propose a conceptual diagram to show where marine NEs fit in the continuum of unaltered to shifted marine ecosystems. Overall, we suggest that the NE concept is of interest to marine ecologists and resource managers because it introduces a new vocabulary for considering marine systems that have been changed through human actions but have not shifted to an alternate stable state. Although it remains to be seen whether the concept of marine NEs leads to better conservation and restoration decisions, we posit that the concept may help inform management decisions in an era of unprecedented global marine change.     

旅游生态学研究进展

作为生态学和旅游学相交叉的一门新兴分支学科,旅游生态学关注旅游发展中的生态环境问题,以生态学原理指导旅游生态系统管理,是促进旅游业可持续发展的重要理论支撑。论文采用引文可视化分析软件CiteSpace5.3和文献阅读相结合的方法分析旅游生态学研究的国际进展。分析发现,文献数量在进入21世纪后快速增长,文献来源地集中在北美和欧洲国家,研究方法呈现多学科综合性和最新科学技术成果应用及时等特点,研究内容主要集中在旅游活动的生态环境影响、旅游生态系统管理和旅游可持续发展的测度及实现途径3个方面。基于国际进展的分析,论文最后提出我国旅游生态学研究应在学科的基础理论、旅游影响的系统性和持续性、旅游生态修复、旅游开发活动的生态环境影响、生态环境变化对旅游业发展的影响和本土性旅游生态系统管理方法等方面加强。     

People as Ecological Participants in Ecological Restoration

In 1987, Bradshaw proposed that ecological restoration is the ultimate “acid test” of our understanding the functioning of ecosystems ( Bradshaw 1987 ). Although this concept is widely supported academically, how it can be applied by restoration practitioners is still unclear. This is an issue not limited to Bradshaw’s acid test, but moreover, reflects a general difficulty associated with the polarization between conceptual restoration (restoration ecology) and practical restoration (ecological restoration), where each has functioned to certain degree in isolation of the other. Outside of the more obvious pragmatic reasons for the relative independence between ecological restoration and restoration ecology, we propose that a more contentious explanation is that the approach taken toward understanding ecosystem development in restoration ecology is tangential to what actually takes place in ecological restoration. Current paradigms assume that the process of ecosystem development in restoration should follow the developmental trajectories suggested by classical ecological succession models. However, unlike these models, ecosystem development in restoration is, at least initially, largely manipulated by people, rather than by abiotic and biotic forces alone. There has been little research undertaken to explore how restoration activities impact upon or add to the extant ecological processes operating within a restoration site. Consequently, ecological restoration may not be so much an acid test of our understanding the functioning of ecosystems, but rather, an acid test of our understanding mutually beneficial interactions between humans and ecosystems.     

国内外主要湾区生态系统特征、修复理论与技术模式

通过总结粤港澳大湾区、东京湾区和旧金山湾区等国内外主要湾区的生态系统特征、生态修复理论和实践研究进展,在辨析生态修复概念内涵的基础上,基于Meta-Analysis及综合分析方法,分析了生态系统退化机制及驱动因子,归纳总结湾区生态修复的主要理论基础、技术模式及案例。结果表明：（1）国内外三大主要湾区的生态系统特征为森林占比最高,其次是农田和草地占比,城镇占比第三。森林一般分布在湾区外围,城镇分布在湾区内核河口三角洲附近。（2）湾区生态修复理论包括以恢复生态学、景观生态学和复合生态系统生态学为基础的三种修复理论,生态修复的类别分为补救修复、改善修复、生态恢复和复垦等。（3）湾区生态修复技术模式包括主动修复、被动修复和重建等三类技术模式。在总结梳理生态修复理论和技术模式的基础上,结合当前国内生态修复存在问题,本文提出我国和广东省开展生态修复实践的建议和展望,以期为粤港澳大湾区生态修复提供一定的理论指导。     

Restoration Ecology: Repairing the Earth's Ecosystems in the New Millennium

The extent of human‐induced change and damage to Earth's ecosystems renders ecosystem repair an essential part of our future survival strategy, and this demands that restoration ecology provide effective conceptual and practical tools for this task. We argue that restoration ecology has to be an integral component of land management in today's world, and to be broadly applicable, has to have a clearly articulated conceptual basis. This needs to recognize that most ecosystems are dynamic and hence restoration goals cannot be based on static attributes. Setting clear and achievable goals is essential, and these should focus on the desired characteristics for the system in the future, rather than in relation to what these were in the past. Goal setting requires that there is a clear understanding of the restoration options available (and the relative costs of different options). The concept of restoration thresholds suggests that options are determined by the current state of the system in relation to biotic and abiotic thresholds. A further important task is the development of effective and easily measured success criteria. Many parameters could be considered for inclusion in restoration success criteria, but these are often ambiguous or hard to measure. Success criteria need to relate clearly back to specific restoration goals. If restoration ecology is to be successfully practiced as part of humanity's response to continued ecosystem change and degradation, restoration ecologists need to rise to the challenges of meshing science, practice and policy. Restoration ecology is likely to be one of the most important fields of the coming century.     

河岸带生态系统退化机制及其恢复研究进展

恢复和重建自然和人为干扰导致的退化河岸带生态系统是目前恢复生态学、流域生态学等学科研究的重要内容之一．对河岸带生态系统的干扰表现在河流水文特征改变、河岸带直接干扰和流域尺度干扰3个方面,分别具有不同的影响机制．河流水文特征改变通过改变河岸土壤湿度、氧化还原电位、生物生存环境以及沉积物传输规律对河岸带生态系统产生影响;河岸带直接干扰通过人类活动及外来物种入侵而直接影响河岸带植被多样性;流域尺度干扰则主要表现在河道刷深、河道淤积、河岸带地下水位降低和河流冲刷过程改变等．河岸带生态恢复评价对象包括河岸带生态系统各要素,评价指标已从单一的生态指标转向综合性指标．河岸带生态恢复应在景观或者流域尺度上进行考虑,识别对其影响的生物和物理过程以及导致其退化的干扰因子,通过植被重建与水文调控来进行．扩展研究尺度和研究对象及采用多学科的研究方法将是今后相关研究中的重要问题．     

Integrating trait‐based empirical and modeling research to improve ecological restoration

A global ecological restoration agenda has led to ambitious programs in environmental policy to mitigate declines in biodiversity and ecosystem services. Current restoration programs can incompletely return desired ecosystem service levels, while resilience of restored ecosystems to future threats is unknown. It is therefore essential to advance understanding and better utilize knowledge from ecological literature in restoration approaches. We identified an incomplete linkage between global change ecology, ecosystem function research, and restoration ecology. This gap impedes a full understanding of the interactive effects of changing environmental factors on the long‐term provision of ecosystem functions and a quantification of trade‐offs and synergies among multiple services. Approaches that account for the effects of multiple changing factors on the composition of plant traits and their direct and indirect impact on the provision of ecosystem functions and services can close this gap. However, studies on this multilayered relationship are currently missing. We therefore propose an integrated restoration agenda complementing trait‐based empirical studies with simulation modeling. We introduce an ongoing case study to demonstrate how this framework could allow systematic assessment of the impacts of interacting environmental factors on long‐term service provisioning. Our proposed agenda will benefit restoration programs by suggesting plant species compositions with specific traits that maximize the supply of multiple ecosystem services in the long term. Once the suggested compositions have been implemented in actual restoration projects, these assemblages should be monitored to assess whether they are resilient as well as to improve model parameterization. Additionally, the integration of empirical and simulation modeling research can improve global outcomes by raising the awareness of which restoration goals can be achieved, due to the quantification of trade‐offs and synergies among ecosystem services under a wide range of environmental conditions.     

喀斯特脆弱生态系统复合退化控制与重建模式

以西南喀斯特地区为例,通过总结前人的研究成就和采集中国科学院亚热带农业生态研究所喀斯特生态实验站部分收集整理和试验数据,系统分析了喀斯特脆弱生态系统及其退化的机理,从"人-自然-经济复合生态系统"的观点出发,以干扰程度、群落类型、服务功能、土地退化和贫困状况为指标,创新性地提出了喀斯特脆弱生态系统的复合退化模式(含4个阶段),运用现代生态恢复学原理、方法和现代管理学创新理论,建立了喀斯特脆弱生态系统复合退化的控制模型.以此为基础,在喀斯特石山区、半石山区和土山丘陵区3个区域环境尺度范围内,针对性地建立了生态保护型、外向经济型和双三重螺旋3种生态恢复与重建模式,以促进喀斯特区域生态、经济、社会的全面协调与可持续发展.     

受损水域生态系统恢复与重建研究

生态系统受到人为因素干扰和损害的后果已成为目前全球面临的日益突出的重大问题和人类神经共同关注的焦点,因而受损害生态系统的恢复与重建理论研究与技术应用愈加受于人们的重视。生态学理论在恢复与重建工作中应该而且可以发挥重要作用并且在实践过程中将得到检验和进一步发展。     

生态地貌学研究动态:地貌学和生态系统生态学的交叉融合

生态地貌学作为一个“新兴”的跨学科的概念,受到地貌学家、生态学家及政策制定者的日益关注。地貌在控制许多生态系统过程中起着基础性的作用,而生态系统又可以对许多地貌形态和地貌过程产生深远的影响。过去几十年,在地貌学和生态系统生态学的交叉点上开展了大量的研究。通过梳理地貌学和生态系统生态学相似的发展历程,讨论了两个学科相结合的必要性;归纳了两者相结合的研究现状;总结了两个学科融合研究过程中存在的问题;提出未来需要进一步加强对地貌过程与生态过程相互作用的研究,并将生态地貌学与现行生态保护与生态修复建设及相关政策有机结合,促进生态地貌学的有序和可持续发展。正确认识地球的地貌形态与生态系统之间的关系,有助于拓展地貌学与生态系统生态学的研究尺度,促进学科体系发展;深入研究生态地貌学,对于维持生态平衡,保护生态多样性及增强未来对生态系统的管理和恢复都有重要意义。     

山水林田湖草生态保护修复的理论支撑体系研究

山水林田湖草生态保护修复关系到我国生态文明建设和美丽中国建设进程,关系到国家生态安全和中华民族永续发展。开展山水林田湖草生态保护修复是生态文明建设的重要内容,是贯彻绿色发展理念的有力举措,也是破解当前生态环境与经济发展之间难题的必然要求。通过总结梳理当前我国山水林田湖草生态保护修复工作的进展与概况,立足于“山水林田湖草是生命共同体”的理论核心,详细阐释了山水林田湖草生态保护修复的内涵及理论体系。山水林田湖草生命共同体的基础理论是以生态系统生态学为支撑,基于流域生态学、恢复生态学和景观生态学的理论诠释山水林田湖草生命共同体的时空区域尺度及流域内部各生态系统之间的耦合机制,通过复合生态系统理论构建山水林田湖草生命共同体的社会、经济、自然生态系统的“架构”体系,明确了流域可持续发展是山水林田湖草生命共同体的最终发展目标。在构建山水林田湖草生态保护修复理论支撑体系的基础上,进一步总结凝练了山水林田湖草生态保护修复的技术体系,包括生态保护、修复与恢复技术、生态建设技术、生态功能提升技术、生态服务优化技术与监督管理技术等,为我国山水林田湖草生态保护修复工作提供坚实的理论和技术支撑体系。     

喀斯特地区石漠化治理的理论模式探讨

基于恢复生态学的基本原理,提出了石漠化形成与治理的触发模型：生态系统所固有的推动自我发展的能力,称为主导力;使生态演替顶级偏离预定态的干扰因素,称为触发因子;主导力与触发因子相互作用,共同决定了生态演替的终态.石漠化是一系列恶性触发的结果,而石漠化治理,则是通过“人为设计”的生态恢复手段,激发生态系统“自我设计”的功能,从而实现生态恢复的良性触发过程. 以湘西凤凰县喀斯特石漠化生态系统恢复治理为例,对触发模型进行了初步检验. 结果表明,以触发模型为指导的恢复措施明显改善了土壤的理化性质,显著提高了植被覆盖率与植物多样性,与当地石漠化生态系统形成了良性触发,初步验证了触发模型的科学性.