Are species names proper names?

The nature of species names has been a source of controversy, and has played a role in developing ideas about the status of species, such as the species‐as‐individuals hypothesis. Some argue that species names are Millian proper names: names that have no meaning. Others have countered that species names are Millian general names that have stipulative definitions. Here I argue that species names belong to neither category. In particular, unlike Millian proper names, species names have unique referents and are connotative. Further, species names are names of intension that, unlike Millian general names, refer to specific collective entities. Because species names have unique properties not associated with Millian general or proper names, but recognizing the similarity to proper names in most respects, I propose that they be categorized as extra‐proper names.
     

THE ENGLISH NAMES OF THE AFROTROPICAL NIGHTJARS (CAPRIMULGIDAE)

Jackson, H. D. 1993. The English names of the Afrotropical nightjars (Caprimulgidae). Ostrich 64: 148–159.

At least 172 different English names have been used on the nightjars of Africa and its related islands, including Madagascar. A review of the literature chronicles the name changes within each species. Problems created by some duplication and transposition of names between species are discussed. A key to all the names is provided by an alphabetical list cross referenced to the species concerned. The orthography of names is discussed and it is recommended that all animal names be capitalized and freed of unnecessary hyphens. The nightjar names used in The Birds of Africa are accepted as the standard to be followed subject to a few changes.     

A revision of the desert shrub Fagonia (Zygophyllaceae)

The taxonomy of the desert shrub genus Fagonia is revised in detail. In total 167 names are accounted for, lectotypes are selected for 33 names, and two names are neotypified. A key to the 34 species is presented, as well as distribution maps for each species. Three new species are described and illustrated, F. densispina and F. latistipulata from Somalia, and F. hadramautica from Yemen. Of the accepted species, 24 are restricted to the Old World and eight to the New World. Most of the Old World species are confined to the Saharo‐Sindian region, with two extending to parts of Macaronesia. Eight species are endemic to the Somali‐Masai region, and two are restricted to southern Africa. In the New World four species are endemic to Baja California, two to northern Baja California and adjacent parts of southwestern USA, one to the province of Coahuila in northeastern Mexico, and one to Chile and Peru. The names of all four species of Fagonia currently on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants are put into synonymy.     

Taxonomic investigation of five streptomycete cultures belonging to ISP standards

The taxonomic investigation of five streptomycete cultures belonging to the International Streptomyces Project (ISP) standards was carried out using the methods of population analysis, DNA-DNA hybridization, and multilocus DNA fingerprinting. Two species with names considered to be synonymous,S. alboviridis ISP 5326 andS. oligocarbophilus ISP 5589, were found to be actually identical. Three other species investigated,S. krainskii ISP 5321,S. craterifer ISP 5296, and 5.anulatus ISP 5361, whose names are usually referred to as synonymous, were shown to be different species.     

Biosystematic studies inTulipa sect.Eriostemones (Liliaceae)

Evolutionary relationships and infra- and interspecific variability within the species ofTulipa sect.Eriostemones Boissier were studied. Measurements of 35 morphological characters were used for principal component and canonical variate analyses. Crossing experiments and chromosome counts were carried out. Two axes of morphological variation were encountered within the principal component plot. Variation of subsect.Biflores was traced along one axis, the species of subsect.Australes as well asSaxatiles were found along the other axis. The nomenclature of names of subsect.Biflores was considered on the basis of their geography, specific morphological characteristics and polyploidy. Conspecificity of names of all species was tested based on both morphology and crossability.     

Ostrich,Southern Ostrich or Common Ostrich? The ‘eternal vexed question’ of English bird names and name changes in southern Africa through eight editions of Roberts field guides, 1940–2016

A set of stable simple common bird names helps non-ornithologist birders, who contribute to conservation by visiting protected areas and participating in citizen science projects. Changes in English bird names have caused discomfort in the local birding community, especially those that followed international standardisation of common bird names between 2000 and 2005. To understand the extent and nature of English bird name changes, an analysis was done of all southern African bird names through the eight editions of Roberts Birds of South/Southern Africa field guides published from 1940 to 2016. Of 813 species listed in both the first and the latest of the field guides, 453 (55.7%) had their names changed, among which 108 (13.3%) had changes in both the group name and the species epithet. The greatest single wave of changes (31.4%) occurred in the first ‘Roberts bird guide’ (the seventh field guide) in 2007, following international standardisation. Mean word and syllable counts of bird names also increased significantly in that edition. Name changes were associated with new authorships, taxonomic changes and use of geographic species epithets. There was a trend towards name stability for southern African endemic species. Further name changes should be kept to a minimum, shortening and simplifying wherever possible.     

Species names and metaphyly: a case study in Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Euthyneura, Nudibranchia, Doridina)

Dayrat, B. & Gosliner, T. M. (2005). Species names and metaphyly: a case study in Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Euthyneura, Nudibranchia, Doridina) —Zoologica Scripta, **, ***–***. Absence of resolution in phylogenetic trees, or metaphyly, is a common phenomenon. It mainly results from the fact that each data set has its own limit and can hardly be expected to reconstruct alone an entire hierarchy. Because metaphyly helps point out which regions of a tree merit further investigation, one should not avoid metaphyly but rather should try to detect it by addressing carefully node reliability. In this paper we explore the implication of metaphyly for species names. We present a phylogenetic analysis of Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Nudibranchia, Doridina), with an emphasis on relationships among species of Discodoris and its traditionally close ‘allies’ such as Peltodoris and Anisodoris. We demonstrate that some species must be transferred to different discodoridid subclades with which they share synapomorphies, but that many species form a metaphyletic group at the base of Discodorididae, and therefore cannot be placed in any taxon of genus level. We demonstrate that the current International Code of Zoological Nomenclature does not allow taxonomists to handle this situation because it requires selecting a taxon name of genus rank for every species binomial. Then we evaluate the results provided by new forms of species names, both in a rank‐based system, such as the current nomenclature, and a rank‐free system. All solutions considered would cause radical changes to the ‘spirit’ of the current ICZN (and, by extension, to the other current codes). In a rank‐free system of nomenclature, such as the PhyloCode, the best result is obtained with an epithet‐based form that does not mention supra‐specific relationships. Under this method, official species names would take the form ‘boholiensis Bergh, 1877’, although page numbers and letters can be added for uniqueness purposes. Taxonomists would then be free to add supra‐specific taxon names in ‘common’ species names, such as Discodorididae boholiensis Bergh, 1877 or simply Discodorididae boholiensis. Here we wish to stimulate discussion of a problem that we believe merits wide debate: absence of resolution in phylogenetic reconstruction and its impact on species nomenclature.     

Nomenclatural transfer of Chinese Pulsatilla to Anemone (Ranunculaceae)

Pulsatilla has been separated from Anemone by many authors. However, molecular phylogenies show that this genus, along with Barneoudia, Knowltonia, Hepatica and Oreithales, is nested with Anemone. For this reason, Pulsatilla is better treated as a section of Anemone. For the Chinese Pulsatilla species, nine species names are already available in Anemone, and the remaining names of three species and four infraspecific taxa are transferred to Anemone here.     

A warning for ecologists and conservation biologists using species checklists: How the European marine fauna ‘lost’ all of its 16 <Emphasis Type="Italic">Discodoris</Emphasis> species (Mollusca: Gastropoda)

The European marine fauna used to be considered to include 16 species of Discodoris sea slugs until a recent worldwide revision demonstrated that there is not a single Discodoris species in European waters. This exemplary case illustrates the fact that species checklists do not accurately represent biodiversity unless they are based on sound taxonomic work in which (1) the status of every available species name has been addressed, i.e. whether it is valid, synonymous, or of doubtful application, and (2) classification reflects phylogenetic relationships. It is argued that taxonomic revisions are critically needed, because the status of species names can only be addressed properly through revisions. It is discussed that fields which depend on taxonomic data, such as conservation biology and ecology, might be affected deeply if problematic species names (synonyms and nomina dubia) have not been recognized. Consequently, it is proposed that a taxon that has not been revised be red-flagged in checklists, so that non-taxonomists will know which species names should be applied with caution or not at all.     

Name typification of Umbelliferae taxa described by Joseph Franz Freyn

Thirty-three new species and 12 new infraspecific taxa of the Umbelliferae have been described by Bohemian botanist Joseph Franz Freyn (1845–1903). The names of these taxa are typified, in most cases by material preserved at the Herbarium of the Moravian Museum (BRNM) in Brno. The names of nine species proposed by Freyn are accepted in the present-day nomenclature of the family; five others are the basionyms of presently accepted names. Type material from BRNM has enabled rehabilitation of the specific status of Angelica brachyradia Freyn from Bosnia and Pastinaca dentata Freyn & Sint. from Turkey. A new nomenclatural combination is proposed (Taeniopetalum urbani (Freyn & Sint. ex H. Wolff) Pimenov). Notes on the distribution of the taxa concerned are added.     

English names for a world list of mammals, exemplified by species of Indochina

1. The lack of a globally accepted list of English‐language names for mammal species leads to various problems stemming from the reduced ability to communicate unambiguously. This impacts directly on their conservation. We use the larger mammals of Indochina to exemplify the use of an explicit set of principles designed to provide each species with a unique and non‐misleading (or at least minimally so) English name. 2. For most species, a suitable name is already in use, sometimes generally so. For species for which multiple names are in use, standardization would consist of adopting the most suitable name. Only for a very few species are all extant names so unsuitable that a neologism should be coined. One species, Panthera pardus, presents potentially insoluble problems. 3. Name standardization among the world's birds has generated some controversy, but this has not led to abandonment of the process. Much can be learned by those developing a similar process for mammals, through studying the bird‐naming process. Progress can be advanced by detractors indicating whether they oppose standardization per se, the principles used or the names resulting from application of the principles. Also, proponents of standardization should always emphasize that the purpose of the process is to produce a list available for those who want to use it, not to produce a binding selection that must be used in all circumstances.     

The Music Indici: its authors, types and localities

The sixty new taxa described in Musci Indici are reviewed. As a result of validation of 54 of these by plates alone, authorities, original specimens and provenance of many have been widely misinterpreted. Evidence from published material, unpublished correspondence and herbarium material demonstrates that W. H. Harvey (1836) is the sole validating author of most of the names; three were validated by J. D. Hooker in 1837, and two names jointly by J. D. Hooker and Harvey in 1840. None was validated by W. J. Hooker, in the past often considered to be the author of some of the names. It is shown that Musci Indici names should be typified by lectotypes; recent typifications of four of the names by ‘holotypes’ and six out of eight published ‘lectotypes’ are untenable as the specimens selected were not original material studied by Harvey, and should be superseded by new lectotypes. Five specimens are selected as new lectotypes. Original material, mostly in Harvey's herbarium in TCD, is identified as most suitable for future lectotypification of the other names. Types for the three names based solely on Royle material are located in LIV and BM. Original Harvey material is also preserved in GL, but most of the Wallich collections in BM, E and elsewhere are not part of the original material. For Neckera blanda no suitable type specimen was located; the original published plate is selected as lectotype with a specimen in BM as a supporting ‘epitype’. Many of the original localities published in 1840 as ‘Nepal’ are shown to be erroneous. As far as possible these are corrected but for some taxa provenance remains doubtful. Twenty-two of the new names are shown not to have been based on material from Nepal; as a result ten species (Acanthorrhynchium papillatum, Brachythecium kamounense, Chaetomitriopsis glaucocarpa, Meiothecium microcarpum, Mitthyridium repens, Rozea fulva, Splachnobryum flaccidum, Sterophyllum radiculosum, Trichosteleum boschii and Trismegistia lancifolia) and Trismegistia lancifolia) are deleted from the Nepal checklist. Twenty-eight of the new species are considered to be reliably based on material from Nepal, and a further five doubtfully so. Rozea microcarpa Broth. is shown to be an synonym of R. fulva (Harv.) M. Fleisch. Past taxonomic confusion between Hypnum cordatum Harv. and Neckera cordata [Hook. ex] Harv. is untangled; the first is shown to be a synonym of Eurhynchium hians (Hedw.) Sande Lac. and the second is the basionym of Penzigiella cordata (Harv.) M. Fleisch.     

A large Percrocutid Carnivore from the Late Miocene (ca. 10–9 Ma) of Nakali, Kenya

The presence of a large hyaenoid (Hiperhyaena sic leakeyi) from the Late Miocene (Vallesian equivalent) deposits at Nakali, Kenya, was first recorded in 1974, but the fossil on which the announcement was based was not described or figured, nor was a type specimen or type species nominated. The generic and specific names are thus nomina nuda. Howell and Petter (1985) described Hyperhyaena leakeyi, and credited the generic and specific names alternatively to Aguirre and Leakey (1974) and Aguirre and Crusafont in 1974 (the latter paper was never published). Howell and Petter are in fact the authors of both the generic and the specific names. Later in the same paper, Howell and Petter (1985) rejected the name Hyperhyaena and classified the species leakeyi in Allohyaena (Dinocrocuta). The purpose of this paper is to provide more information about the fossil and to discuss its relationships to other percrocutids. It is concluded that it belongs to the genus Percrocuta Kretzoi, 1938, being morphologically similar to the type species Percrocuta carnifex (Pilgrim, 1913) from the Siwaliks of Pakistan.     

Taxonomy of the genera of the Myxobolus/Myxosoma group (Myxobolidae: Myxosporea), current listing of species and revision of synonyms

A revision of the genera Myxobolus and Myxosoma is presented. On the basis of Lom & Noble (1984), all species are designated as Myxobolus. A total of 444 species of Myxobolus, including three subspecies, are listed together with their hosts. All former Myxosoma species are assigned to the genus Myxobolus and those which were previously homonyms or synonyms have been assigned new names where valid. Synonyms and other species omitted from the definitive Myxobolus list are also given.     

Isoenzyme and Total Protein Analysis by Agarose Isoelectric Focusing, and Taxonomy of the Genus Acanthamoeba

Thirty axenically grown reference strains belonging to 15 different Acanthamoeba spp. were investigated for isoenzyme patterns by agarose isoelectric focusing in the pH range 3–10. Zymograms of acid phosphatase, leucine amino peptidase, malate dehydrogenase, propionyl esterase, glucose phosphate isomerase, phosphoglucomutase, and alcohol dehydrogenase were compared. The same strains were also analyzed for protein patterns separated by agarose isoelectric focusing in a pH gradient of 5–8. The results suggested changes in taxonomy within morphology group II of Pussard & Pons. Acanthamoeba paradivionensis becomes a synonym of A. divionensis. Although this species seems to be related to A. rhysodes, it could not be concluded that the species names are synonyms since the type strain of A. rhysodes was not available for comparison. In the subgroup A. polyphaga–A. quina–A. lugdunensis, A. lugdunensis becomes the species name for pathogenic strains of this subroup, A. quina for the nonpathogenic strains, while A. polyphaga is the species name for an atypical strain. Two strains of A. castellanii showed different zymograms from strain Neff of this species, but related protein patterns. In group III, A. pustulosa is found to be a synonym of A. palestinensis, while one strain of A. lenticulata is also found to belong to the A. palestinensis species. All other species names in both morphology groups could be retained as valuable, on the basis of the techniques used. Group I was not investigated, as axenic cultures could not be obtained.     

Two new names in West-Central African <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quassia</Emphasis> L. (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Simaroubaceae</Emphasis>)

Summary  Two West-Central African species of Hannoa Planch. are formally resurrected in the genus Quassia L. and the necessary new names provided.