Predators reduce abundance and species richness of coral reef fish recruits via non-selective predation

Predators have important effects on coral reef fish populations, but their effects on community structure have only recently been investigated and are not yet well understood. Here, the effect of predation on the diversity and abundance of young coral reef fishes was experimentally examined in Moorea, French Polynesia. Effects of predators were quantified by monitoring recruitment of fishes onto standardized patch reefs in predator-exclosure cages or uncaged reefs. At the end of the 54-day experiment, recruits were 74% less abundant on reefs exposed to predators than on caged ones, and species richness was 42% lower on reefs exposed to predators. Effects of predators varied somewhat among families, however, rarefaction analysis indicated that predators foraged non-selectively among species. These results indicate that predation can alter diversity of reef fish communities by indiscriminately reducing the abundance of fishes soon after settlement, thereby reducing the number of species present on reefs.     

From record performance to hypoxia tolerance: respiratory transition in damselfish larvae settling on a coral reef

The fastest swimming fishes in relation to size are found among coral reef fish larvae on their way to settle on reefs. By testing two damselfishes, Chromis atripectoralis and Pomacentrus amboinensis, we show that the high swimming speeds of the pre-settlement larvae are accompanied by the highest rates of oxygen uptake ever recorded in ectothermic vertebrates. As expected, these high rates of oxygen uptake occur at the cost of poor hypoxia tolerance. However, hypoxia tolerance is needed when coral reef fishes seek nocturnal shelter from predators within coral colonies, which can become severely hypoxic microhabitats at night. When the larvae settle on the reef, we found that they go through a striking respiratory transformation, i.e. the capacity for rapid oxygen uptake falls, while the ability for high-affinity oxygen uptake at low oxygen levels is increased. This transition to hypoxia tolerance is needed when they settle on the reef; this was strengthened by our finding that small resident larvae of Acanthochromis polyacanthus, a damselfish lacking a planktonic larval stage, do not display such a transition, being well adapted to hypoxia and showing relatively low maximum rates of oxygen uptake that change little with age.     

Habitat complexity modifies the impact of piscivores on a coral reef fish population

Patterns in juvenile mortality rates can have a profound affect on the distribution and abundance of adult individuals, and may be the result of a number of interacting factors. Field observations at Lizard Island (Great Barrier Reef, Australia) showed that for a coral reef damselfish, Pomacentrus moluccensis, juvenile mortality (over 1 year) varied between 20 and almost 100% among sites. Correlative data showed that juvenile mortality increased as a function of initial densities (recruitment), predator densities and the availability of preferred coral substrata. A multiple regression showed that these three variables together did not explain significantly more variation in mortality than the single factor showing the strongest relationship. This appeared to be because recruitment, predator densities and preferred coral substrata were all highly correlated, suggesting that one, two or all of these factors may be influencing juvenile mortality rates. One hypothesis was that density-dependent mortality in juveniles was the result of an interaction between predators (which appear to aggregate at high-recruitment sites) and the availability of preferred substrata (predator refuges). We tested this hypothesis by using both laboratory and field experiments to see whether fish predation could significantly alter survivorship of this damselfish, and whether this impact was dependent upon the coral substratum. The laboratory experiment was designed to test the effects of three common predators (Pseudochromis fuscus, Cephalopholis boenak and Thalassoma lunare) and three different coral substrata that varied in their complexity (Pocillopora damicornis, Acropora nasuta and A. nobilis) on the survival of juvenile Pomacentrus moluccensis. There was a significant interaction between predator species and microhabitat in determining survival. Pseudochromis fuscus and C. boenak were both significantly better at capturing juvenile damselfish than T. lunare. Juvenile survivorship was significantly better when they were given the more complex corals, Pocillopora damicornis and A. nasuta, compared with those given the open-structured species A. nobilis. This pattern reflects habitat selection in the field. Predators differed in their strike rates and the proportion of strikes that were successful, but all exhibited greater success at prey capture where A. nobilis was provided as shelter. The interaction between the effect of predator species and microhabitat structure on damselfish survival was tested in the field for a cohort of juvenile Pomacentrus moluccensis. We examined juvenile survival in the presence and absence of two predators that co-occur on natural patch reefs (C. boenak and Pseudochromis fuscus). The experimental patch reefs we used for this purpose were constructed from both high complexity (Pocillopora damicornis) and low complexity (A. nobilis) coral substrata. Both juveniles and predators were translocated to reefs at natural densities. The effects of predation were clearly dependent upon the microhabitat. Reefs of the high-complexity coral with predators supported the same high numbers of Pomacentrus moluccensis as the reefs with no resident predators. However, damselfish abundance was significantly lower on low-complexity reefs with resident predators, relative to the other treatments. Background rates of loss were high, even on preferred coral in the absence of the manipulated predator, suggesting that transient predators may be even more important than the residents. We suggest that adult abundances in this species were strongly influenced by the densities of different predators and the availability of preferred refuges. Received: 3 April 1997 / Accepted: 26 August 1997     

Water contamination reduces the tolerance of coral larvae to thermal stress

Coral reefs are highly susceptible to climate change, with elevated sea surface temperatures (SST) posing one of the main threats to coral survival. Successful recruitment of new colonies is important for the recovery of degraded reefs following mortality events. Coral larvae require relatively uncontaminated substratum on which to metamorphose into sessile polyps, and the increasing pollution of coastal waters therefore constitutes an additional threat to reef resilience. Here we develop and analyse a model of larval metamorphosis success for two common coral species to quantify the interactive effects of water pollution (copper contamination) and SST. We identify thresholds of temperature and pollution that prevent larval metamorphosis, and evaluate synergistic interactions between these stressors. Our analyses show that halving the concentration of Cu can protect corals from the negative effects of a 2-3°C increase in SST. These results demonstrate that effective mitigation of local impacts can reduce negative effects of global stressors.     

Diel ontogenetic shift in parasitic activity in a gnathiid isopod on Caribbean coral reefs

Ontogenetic niche shifts are characteristic of organisms with complex life cycles such as many marine invertebrates. Research has focused primarily on changes in habitat or diet. However, ontogenetic changes can also occur in the temporal pattern of foraging. Gnathiid isopods feed on fish blood throughout their larval stages and are the primary food item for cleaning organisms on coral reefs. At sites in Australia and the Caribbean, gnathiid larvae exhibit size-related differences in diel activity. However, it is unclear whether this is due to interspecific or intraspecific variation in behavior. Fish were deployed in cages near sunset on shallow reefs off St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands and allowed to be infected with larval gnathiids. Larvae collected from fish retrieved near midnight developed into adults, with most developing into females. In contrast, approximately 80% of gnathiids collected after first light developed into second or third stage larvae, and nearly all of the remaining, large, individuals developed into males. Comparison of ITS2 gene regions from individuals collected in emergence traps from the same reefs during the day versus during the night revealed no differences in this highly variable region. Thus, gnathiid larvae at this locality shift their time of activity as they develop, and larvae developing into males remain active over a longer time period than those developing into females.     

Survival dynamics of scleractinian coral larvae and implications for dispersal

Survival of pelagic marine larvae is an important determinant of dispersal potential. Despite this, few estimates of larval survival are available. For scleractinian corals, few studies of larval survival are long enough to provide accurate estimates of longevity. Moreover, changes in mortality rates during larval life, expected on theoretical grounds, have implications for the degree of connectivity among reefs and have not been quantified for any coral species. This study quantified the survival of larvae from five broadcast-spawning scleractinian corals (Acropora latistella, Favia pallida, Pectinia paeonia, Goniastrea aspera, and Montastraea magnistellata) to estimate larval longevity, and to test for changes in mortality rates as larvae age. Maximum lifespans ranged from 195 to 244 d. These longevities substantially exceed those documented previously for coral larvae that lack zooxanthellae, and they exceed predictions based on metabolic rates prevailing early in larval life. In addition, larval mortality rates exhibited strong patterns of variation throughout the larval stage. Three periods were identified in four species: high initial rates of mortality; followed by a low, approximately constant rate of mortality; and finally, progressively increasing mortality after approximately 100 d. The lifetimes observed in this study suggest that the potential for long-distance dispersal may be substantially greater than previously thought. Indeed, detection of increasing mortality rates late in life suggests that energy reserves do not reach critically low levels until approximately 100 d after spawning. Conversely, increased mortality rates early in life decrease the likelihood that larvae transported away from their natal reef will survive to reach nearby reefs, and thus decrease connectivity at regional scales. These results show how variation in larval survivorship with age may help to explain the seeming paradox of high genetic structure at metapopulation scales, coupled with the maintenance of extensive geographic ranges observed in many coral species. Communicated by Environment Editor Prof. van Woesik.     

Role of predators in the early post-settlement demography of coral-reef fishes

Populations with dispersive larvae are often demographically open such that local reproduction and subsequent larval settlement are not linked. Thus, understanding whether and how settlement patterns are established and subsequently modified is central to understanding local demography. Settlement is typically not measured directly, but rather it is estimated by recruitment, which is the observation of new individuals sometime after settlement. At Lizard Island on the Great Barrier Reef, I examined how patterns of recruitment of coral-reef fishes were modified across a range of natural recruit densities in the presence and absence of resident predators. Resident predators decreased recruitment and increased mortality for all species, but these effects varied considerably among species. The effects of predators on recruitment were at least partly due to mortality within 2 days after settlement. At their most extreme, predators caused recruitment failure of several species of butterflyfish. For one species of damselfish (Pomacentrus amboinensis), predators both induced weakly density-dependent mortality and obscured any relationship between recruitment and subsequent abundance, while for another damselfish (Neopomacentrus cyanomos), mortality was density-independent and subsequent abundance was a function of recruitment. These contrasting results may reflect differences in prey behavior. P. amboinensis tended to feed near or within the branches of coral inhabited by resident predators, while N. cyanomos tended to feed higher in the water column above the reefs, and thus farther away from resident predators. These results highlight the speed and extent to which patterns of settlement are modified, indicating that caution should be exercised when attributing patterns of recruitment to patterns of settlement. Tremendous between-species variation in how patterns of recruitment, and presumably settlement, were modified by predation indicates that generalizations or between-species extrapolations about the magnitude of these effects may be unwarranted.     

Metamorphosis of a scleractinian coral in response to microbial biofilms

Microorganisms have been reported to induce settlement and metamorphosis in a wide range of marine invertebrate species. However, the primary cue reported for metamorphosis of coral larvae is calcareous coralline algae (CCA). Herein we report the community structure of developing coral reef biofilms and the potential role they play in triggering the metamorphosis of a scleractinian coral. Two-week-old biofilms induced metamorphosis in less than 10% of larvae, whereas metamorphosis increased significantly on older biofilms, with a maximum of 41% occurring on 8-week-old microbial films. There was a significant influence of depth in 4- and 8-week biofilms, with greater levels of metamorphosis occurring in response to shallow-water communities. Importantly, larvae were found to settle and metamorphose in response to microbial biofilms lacking CCA from both shallow and deep treatments, indicating that microorganisms not associated with CCA may play a significant role in coral metamorphosis. A polyphasic approach consisting of scanning electron microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) revealed that coral reef biofilms were comprised of complex bacterial and microalgal communities which were distinct at each depth and time. Principal-component analysis of FISH data showed that the Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Cytophaga-Flavobacterium of Bacteroidetes had the largest influence on overall community composition. A low abundance of Archaea was detected in almost all biofilms, providing the first report of Archaea associated with coral reef biofilms. No differences in the relative densities of each subdivision of Proteobacteria were observed between slides that induced larval metamorphosis and those that did not. Comparative cluster analysis of bacterial DGGE patterns also revealed that there were clear age and depth distinctions in biofilm community structure; however, no difference was detected in banding profiles between biofilms which induced larval metamorphosis and those where no metamorphosis occurred. This investigation demonstrates that complex microbial communities can induce coral metamorphosis in the absence of CCA.     

The effect of natural variation in substrate architecture on the survival of juvenile bicolor damselfish

Coral reefs offer settling fish larvae a spatial mosaic of microhabitats that differ not only in structural complexity but also in the abundance and diversity of predators. This paper provides evidence that interactions between predators and prey are causally linked to variation in relevant architectural characteristics of natural substrates. Juvenile bicolor damselfish, Stegastes partitus, experienced greater mortality on Montastrea annularis boulder coral than on piles of Porites porites coral rubble. This pattern was consistent on both back and fore reef habitats. Architectural differences, variable encounter rates with predators, and access to different food sources all contributed to higher mortality. Spatial and structural differences among refuges provided by the two substrates were most important in affecting survival. Porites rubble contained almost three times the number of crevices (39.9 vs. 14.3 crevices m^–2AM²), had a much smaller mean crevice size (15.9 vs. 48.5 cm²), and had a more complex internal structure than Montastrea coral. Survival of juvenile fish living on Montastrea coral was positively correlated with crevice density (r² = 0.41) whereas survival of fish living on Porites rubble was negatively correlated with crevice size (r² = 0.43). These patterns were evident on fore reef habitats only, whereas on back reef habitats no clear patterns emerged. The effect of these natural differences in architecture on mortality rates of juvenile S. partitus was experimentally tested in the field using a combination of natural and artificial substrates. As the number of large shelters was increased I found that the density of potential predators increased but the survival rates of juvenile bicolor damselfish declined. These results highlight the importance of structural architecture among common reef substrates in affecting predator-prey relationships and in determining the survivorship and small-scale distribution patterns of juvenile reef fish.     

南海孔石藻可培养细菌多样性及代谢产物四溴吡咯研究

钙化藻和微生物在造礁石珊瑚幼虫的附着变态过程中扮演着重要角色,对珊瑚礁生态系统的健康具有重要意义。对南海珊瑚礁区钙化藻的共附生细菌进行分离培养,一方面有利于发掘南海珊瑚礁的微生物资源,另一方面有利于进行微生物与珊瑚、钙化藻等珊瑚礁框架生物的相互作用研究。本研究分离获得孔石藻(Porolithon onkodes)表面共附生细菌,基于16S rRNA基因序列进行系统发育分析,并通过高效液相色谱和质谱对分离得到的假交替单胞菌属菌株的代谢产物进行比较分析。从孔石藻分离获得的369株细菌菌株分别隶属于变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)和厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)的5纲12目22科47属的97个种级类群。在属级水平上,假交替单胞菌属(Pseudoalteromonas)的菌株数量最多,分属于7个种。在假交替单胞菌属的代谢产物分析中,发现3株在系统发育树中聚为一簇的假交替单胞菌的代谢产物中存在四溴吡咯,而其余没有。研究结果不仅表明了钙化藻中含有丰富的可培养微生物和潜在新物种资源,还首次发现四溴吡咯在南海珊瑚礁区特定类群菌株的代谢产物中的存在,为珊瑚幼虫附着变态的化学信号研究提供基础。     

The effects of age and size on habitat selection during settlement of a damselfish

The adults of many coral reef fish species are site-attached, and their habitat is selected at the time of settlement by their larvae. The length of the planktonic larval period varies both intra- and interspecifically, and it is unknown how the age and size of larvae may affect their selection of habitat. To investigate the influence of age and size on habitat selection, I collected newly settled Hawaiian domino damselfish, Dascyllus albisella, daily from grids containing three coral species at four locations in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. I recorded the coral species each fish was collected on, and measured and aged (by otoliths) the collected fish. The results indicate that the coral Pocillopora meandrina was selected by settling fish significantly more than the other two coral species. Younger and smaller larvae selected this coral species more frequently than older/larger larvae. In addition, younger/smaller individuals were found more commonly inside the bay than older/larger settling larvae. Differences in the choice of coral species and location of settlement may be partly due to ontogenetic differences in the sensory capacities of larvae to detect corals, conspecifics, and predators, or to a larval competency period. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Selective predation for low body condition at the larval-juvenile transition of a coral reef fish

Mortality is known to be high during the transition from larval to juvenile life stages in organisms that have complex life histories. We are only just beginning to understand the processes that influence which individuals survive this period of high mortality, and which traits may be beneficial. Here we document a field experiment that examines the selectivity of predation immediately following settlement to the juvenile population in a common tropical fish, Pomacentrus amboinensis (Pomacentridae). Newly metamorphosed fish were tagged and randomly placed onto replicated patches of natural habitat cleared of resident fishes. After exposure to transient predators for 3 days, fish were recollected and the attributes of survivors from patch reefs that sustained high mortality were compared to individuals from patch reefs that experienced low mortality. Seven characteristics of individuals, which were indicative of previous and present body condition, were compared between groups. Predation was found to be selective for fish that grew slowly in the latter third of their larval phase, were low in total lipids, and had a high standardized weight (Fultons K). Traits developed in the larval phase can strongly influence the survival of individuals over this critical transition period for organisms with complex life cycles.     

Modeling vertical coral connectivity and mesophotic refugia

Whether mesophotic reefs will behave as refugia for corals threatened by global climate change and coastal development depends on vertical exchange of larvae between diverse habitats. Here we use a biophysical model of larval dispersal to estimate vertical connectivity of a broadcasting (Orbicella faveolata) and a brooding (Porites astreoides) species of coral in the US Virgin Islands. Modeling predicts subsidy to shallow areas by mesophotic larvae of both species based on local hydrology, adult reproductive characteristics, larval traits, and a wide range of scenarios developed to test depth-sensitive factors, such as fertilization rates and post-settlement survivorship. In extreme model scenarios of reduced fertilization and post-settlement survivorship of mesophotic larvae, 1–10 % local mesophotic subsidy to shallow recruitment is predicted for both species, which are demographically significant. Although direct vertical connectivity is higher for the broadcaster, the brooder demonstrates higher local multigenerational vertical connectivity, which suggests that local P. astreoides populations are more resilient than those of O. faveolata, and corroborates field studies. As shallow habitat degrades, mesophotic–shallow subsidy is predicted to increase for both species. This study is the first of its kind to simulate larval dispersal and settlement between habitats of different depths, and these findings have local, regional, and global implications for predicting and managing coral reef persistence in a changing climate.     

Evidence of density-independent mortality in a settling coral reef damselfish, Chromis viridis

To know if the variation in the number of settling fish larvae can be dampened by density-dependent postsettlement mortality, we investigated the relationship between settler density and predator-induced mortality of a coral reef damselfish, Chromis viridis. Totals of 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 fish of 10 or 20 mm total length were released in experimental cages enclosing a coral head of Porites rus (to provide settlement habitat) and five predators. The results showed that the mortality rate of both 10- and 20-mm fish was density independent.     

Metamorphosis of a Scleractinian Coral in Response to Microbial Biofilms

Microorganisms have been reported to induce settlement and metamorphosis in a wide range of marine invertebrate species. However, the primary cue reported for metamorphosis of coral larvae is calcareous coralline algae (CCA). Herein we report the community structure of developing coral reef biofilms and the potential role they play in triggering the metamorphosis of a scleractinian coral. Two-week-old biofilms induced metamorphosis in less than 10% of larvae, whereas metamorphosis increased significantly on older biofilms, with a maximum of 41% occurring on 8-week-old microbial films. There was a significant influence of depth in 4- and 8-week biofilms, with greater levels of metamorphosis occurring in response to shallow-water communities. Importantly, larvae were found to settle and metamorphose in response to microbial biofilms lacking CCA from both shallow and deep treatments, indicating that microorganisms not associated with CCA may play a significant role in coral metamorphosis. A polyphasic approach consisting of scanning electron microscopy, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) revealed that coral reef biofilms were comprised of complex bacterial and microalgal communities which were distinct at each depth and time. Principal-component analysis of FISH data showed that the Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Cytophaga-Flavobacterium of Bacteroidetes had the largest influence on overall community composition. A low abundance of Archaea was detected in almost all biofilms, providing the first report of Archaea associated with coral reef biofilms. No differences in the relative densities of each subdivision of Proteobacteria were observed between slides that induced larval metamorphosis and those that did not. Comparative cluster analysis of bacterial DGGE patterns also revealed that there were clear age and depth distinctions in biofilm community structure; however, no difference was detected in banding profiles between biofilms which induced larval metamorphosis and those where no metamorphosis occurred. This investigation demonstrates that complex microbial communities can induce coral metamorphosis in the absence of CCA.     

Linking larval history to juvenile demography in the bicolor damselfish Stegastes partitus (Perciformes: Pomacentridae)

Otolith-based reconstructions of daily larval growth increments were used to examine the effect of variation in larval growth on size and age at settlement and post-settlement growth, survival and habitat preferences of juvenile bicolor damselfish (Stegastes partitus Poey). During August 1992 and 1994, newly settled S. partitus were collected from Montastraea coral heads and Porites rubble piles in Tague Bay, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands (17 degrees 45'N, 64 degres 42' W). Daily lapillar otolith increments from each fish were counted and measured with Optimas image analysis software. S. partitus pelagic larval duration was 23.7 d in 1992 (n = 70) and 24.6 d in 1994 (n = 38) and larval age at settlement averaged 13.0 mm total length both years. Analysis of daily otolith increments demonstrated that variation in larval growth rates and size and age at settlement had no detectable effect on post-settlement survivorship but that larger larvae showed a preference for Montastraea coral at settlement. Late larval and early juvenile growth rates showed a significant positive relationship indicating that growth patterns established during the planktonic stage can span metamorphosis and continue into the benthic juvenile phase. Larval growth rates during the first two weeks post-hatching also had a strong effect on age to developmental competence (ability to undergo metamorphosis) in both 1992 and 1994 with the fastest growing larvae being 8 d younger and 0.8 mm smaller at settlement than the slowest growing larvae. These differential growth rates in early stage larvae established trajectories toward larval developmental competence and may prove important in biogeographical studies of larval dispersal.     

Live coral cover may provide resilience to damage from the vermetid gastropod Dendropoma maximum by preventing larval settlement

Dendropoma maximum is a vermetid gastropod (a sessile tube-forming snail) commonly associated with living corals throughout shallow-water reefs of the Indo-Pacific. Recent work suggests that, once established, this species can adversely affect growth and survival of corals. Here, we test the hypotheses that disturbances to live coral substrates (e.g., creation of bare patches) facilitate successful larval settlement and subsequent population growth of D. maximum, and conversely, that live coral inhibits D. maximum settlement. In the shallow lagoon of Moorea, French Polynesia, we selected patch reefs where D. maximum was either present or absent (to evaluate potential effects of resident adult conspecifics on recruitment) and established focal quadrats on each reef. In each quadrat, we either experimentally removed 50 % of live coral cover or left the quadrat with 100 % live coral cover. In addition, we deployed units of bare substrate (coral rubble) to each reef. We conducted a census of deployed substrates and quadrats after 6 months and found that D. maximum settled irrespective of resident vermetid populations, and only onto nonliving surfaces (i.e., cleared patches in quadrats, coral rubble, and marine epoxy). In laboratory experiments, we exposed larvae of D. maximum to live coral and found species-specific effects on survival of D. maximum larvae. Porites lobata and Pocillopora sp. killed larvae of D. maximum, Porites rus caused weaker mortality, and Millepora sp. had no effect on larval survival. Collectively, these results suggest that D. maximum requires disturbances that create bare patches to successfully settle onto reefs, and that a high cover of living corals contributes resilience to reefs by limiting settlement opportunities of a species known to reduce coral growth and survival.     

Short-term and latent post-settlement effects associated with elevated temperature and oxidative stress on larvae from the coral Porites astreoides

Coral reefs across the Caribbean are undergoing unprecedented rates of decline in coral cover during the last three decades, and coral recruitment is one potential process that could aid the recovery of coral populations. To better understand the effects of climate change on coral larval ecology, the larvae of Porites astreoides were studied to determine the immediate and post-settlement effects of elevated temperature and associated oxidative stress. Larvae of Porites astreoides were exposed to 27 °C (ambient) and +3.0 °C (elevated temperature) seawater for a short duration of 24 h; then, a suite of physiological parameters were measured to determine the extent of sublethal stress. Following the +3.0 °C treatment, larvae did not show a significant difference in maximum quantum yield of PSII (F _v/F _m) or respiratory demand when compared to controls maintained at 27 °C. The addition of micromolar concentrations of hydrogen peroxide did not impact respiration or photochemical efficiency. Catalase activity in the larvae increased (>60 %) following exposure to elevated temperature when compared to the controls. Short-term larval survival and settlement and metamorphosis were not affected by increased temperature or the H₂O₂ treatment. However, the settled spat that were exposed to elevated temperature underwent a 99 % reduction in survival compared to 90 % reduction for the control spat when examined 24 days following the deployment of 4-day-old settled spat on settlement tiles in the field. These results show that short-term exposure to some stressors might have small impacts on coral physiology, and no effects on larval survival, settlement and metamorphosis. However, due to post-settlement mortality, these stressors can cause a significant reduction in coral recruitment.     

Copper and thermal perturbations on the early life processes of the hard coral <Emphasis Type="Italic">Platygyra acuta</Emphasis>

Anthropogenic pollutants and climate change are major threats to coral reefs today. Yet interactions between chemical and thermal perturbations have not been fully explored in reef studies. Here, we present the single and combined effects of copper (Cu) with thermal stress on five early life-history stages/processes (fertilization, larval mortality, swimming ability, metamorphosis and growth of juvenile recruits) of the massive coral Platygyra acuta in Hong Kong. In the first four experiments, coral gametes and larvae were exposed to different Cu doses (0–200 μg L^?1, apart from the fertilization assay in which 0–1000 μg L^?1 was used) and temperature treatments (ambient and ambient +2 or +3 °C as a thermal stress treatment) following a factorial experimental design. Exposure time was 5 h for the fertilization assay and 48 h for the other experiments. The last experiment on growth of coral recruits was conducted over 56 d with 0–80 μg L^?1 Cu used. Cu significantly reduced percent fertilization success, percentage of active swimming larvae and larval survivorship (EC₅₀s, the half maximal effective concentrations, for percent fertilization success and percentage of active swimming larvae were 92–145 and 45–47 μg L^?1 respectively. While LC₅₀, the lethal concentration that kills 50% of the population, was 101–110 μg L^?1), while growth of coral recruits was not affected at 80 μg L^?1 Cu for 56 d. No settling cues were used in the settlement experiment. In their absence, percent metamorphosis increased with Cu doses, in sharp contrast to earlier findings. Settlement and metamorphosis may thus be strategies for coral larvae to escape from Cu toxicity. Thermal treatment did not significantly affect any experimental end points. This is likely because the thermal regimes used in the experiments were within the range experienced by local corals. The high variability in Cu toxicities indicates differential susceptibilities of the various life-history stages/processes of P. acuta. The level of Cu tolerance was also markedly higher than that reported in the literature for other coral species. This provides evidence to suggest possible adaptation of this species to survive in a highly polluted marine environment like that in Hong Kong.     

Comparison of two samplers for quantitatively collecting larval fishes in upper littoral habitats*

Performance of two larval fish samplers, a hand–towed net and a dropbox enclosure, was similar when tested in shallow (x water depth, 20 cm) upper littoral–zone habitats. There was no significant difference between means of larval fish density (by total catch and by species) estimated from the catch in each gear, during the day and at night. Mean length of larvae (total catch) from the tow net was significantly longer than that from the dropbox during the day, but mean length did not differ between gear at night. Mean lengths of larvae of each species between gear were not significantly different within each period. Both gears collected significantly longer larvae (total catch and by species) during the day than at night probably because of diel movements of larvae of different sizes and species.