Negative ��GHIs,�� the Right to Health Protection, and Future Generations

The argument has been made that future generations of human beings are being harmed unjustifiably by the actions individuals commit today. This paper addresses what it might mean to harm future generations, whether we might harm them, and what our duties toward future generations might be. After introducing the “Global Health Impact” (GHI) concept as a unit of measurement that evaluates the effects of human actions on the health of all organisms, an incomplete theory of human justice is proposed. Having shown that the negative GHIs of our current generation cause unfair harm to future generations, I argue that each human being must be allocated a fair threshold of negative GHIs that should not be exceeded. By emphasising the need to consider all the GHIs of human actions, the theory of human justice developed here is highly relevant to evaluate human actions that might affect future generations, for example those related to climate change.     

A Pilot Study Assessing the Impact of a Fortified Supplementary Food on the Health and Well-Being of Crèche Children and Adult TB Patients in South Africa

The South African population faces many of the global concerns relating to micronutrient deficiency and the impact this has on health and well-being. Moreover, there is a high prevalence of HIV infection, compounded by a high level of co-infection with TB.This pilot study evaluates the impact of a fortified supplementary food on the health and well-being of a cohort of crèche children, aged 3 to 6, and adult TB patients drawn from the Presidential Node of Alexandra, Johannesburg, South Africa. A further aim of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity and validity of non-invasive indicators of nutritional status in a field-based population sample.The investigational product, e’Pap, is supported by extensive anecdotal evidence that whole grain cereals with food-style nutrients constitute an effective supplementary food for those suffering from the effects of food insecurity, poor health and well-being, and coping with TB and HIV infection.The results indicate a beneficial effect of e’Pap for both study populations, and particularly for adult TB patients, whose baseline data reflected severe food insecurity and malnutrition in the majority of cases. There is evidence to suggest statistically significant improvements in key micronutrient levels, well-being and energy, hand-grip strength, the Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) Illness Marker, and certain clinical indicators. Although Body Mass Index (BMI) and Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) are frequently used as standard measures to evaluate the efficacy of nutritional interventions, these indicators were not sufficiently sensitive in this study. Nor does weight gain necessarily indicate improved nutritional status. Hand-grip strength, lean body mass, and the BIA Illness Marker seem to be more useful indicators of change in nutritional status.     

Species–area relationships in the Hantam-Tanqua-Roggeveld,Succulent Karoo,South Africa

The Hantam-Tanqua-Roggeveld subregion is part of the Succulent Karoo hotspot of biodiversity which stretches along the southwestern side of South Africa and Namibia. Forty Whittaker plots were surveyed in the spring of 2005, in eight vegetation associations, to gather diversity data for the Hantam, Tanqua Karoo and Roggeveld areas. Seven plot sizes were used to construct species–area curves using three different models namely: the untransformed linear function, the power function and the exponential function. In general, the power and exponential functions produced a more significant fit to the data than the untransformed linear function. Linear regressions using environmental parameters indicated that altitude, mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature were significant predictors of species richness at the 1, 10, 100 and 1000 m² scales. To illustrate the variation in species–area curves and species richness across the landscape, a transect through the study area is discussed. The transect stretches eastwards from the Tanqua Karoo across the escarpment into the Roggeveld and crosses five different vegetation associations. Differences between associations were found in species richness in the 1000 m² plots. Each association also produced species–area curves with their own characteristics. Slope values for the samples within an association did not differ significantly, although the intercept value often did. Comparisons between associations along the transect revealed significant differences in the slope value between the associations, except for the Dicerothamnus rhinocerotis Mountain Renosterveld which did not differ significantly from the associations bordering it on either side.     

Association of Neighbourhood and Individual Social Capital,Neighbourhood Economic Deprivation and Self-Rated Health in South Africa – a Multi-Level Analysis

Introduction

Social capital is said to influence health, mostly in research undertaken in high income countries'' settings. Because social capital may differ from one setting to another, it is suggested that its measurement be context specific. We examine the association of individual and neighbourhood level social capital, and neighbourhood deprivation to self-rated health using a multi-level analysis.

Methods

Data are taken from the 2008 South Africa National Income Dynamic Survey. Health was self-reported on a scale from 1 (excellent) to 5 (poor). Two measures of social capital were used: individual, measured by two variables denoting trust and civic participation; and neighbourhood social capital, denoting support, association, behaviour and safety in a community.

Results

Compared to males, females were less likely to report good health (Odds Ratio 0.82: Confidence Interval 0.73, 0.91). There were variations in association of individual social capital and self-rated health among the provinces. In Western Cape (1.37: 0.98, 1.91) and North West (1.39: 1.13, 1.71), trust was positively associated with reporting good health, while the reverse was true in Limpopo (0.56: 0.38, 0.84) and Free State (0.70: 0.48, 1.02). In Western Cape (0.60: 0.44, 0.82) and Mpumalanga (0.72: 0.55, 0.94), neighbourhood social capital was negatively associated with reporting good health. In North West (1.59: 1.27, 1.99) and Gauteng (1.90: 1.21, 2.97), increased neighbourhood social capital was positively associated with reporting good health.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrated the importance of considering contextual factors when analysing the relationship between social capital and health. Analysis by province showed variations in the way in which social capital affected health in different contexts. Further studies should be undertaken to understand the mechanisms through which social capital impacts on health in South Africa.     

Have grass carp driven declines in macrophyte occurrence and diversity in the Vaal River,South Africa?

The Vaal River, South Africa, historically had a rich diversity of native submerged macrophytes with at least 13 species from 5 families recorded. Over the past 10 years there has been a noticeable reduction in the occurrence and diversity of submerged macrophytes in the river. It is possible that this is linked to the recent increase in the populations of invasive alien grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella Cuvier & Valenciennes (Cyprinidae) in the river, where populations have been a concern since 2005. Grass carp invasions worldwide have been shown to have severe impacts on macrophyte biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. This fish is an aggressive feeder on submerged macrophytes, as well as being an ecosystem engineer that can change water and sediment chemistry.     

NF-��B in the Immune Response of Drosophila

The nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathways play a major role in Drosophila host defense. Two recognition and signaling cascades control this immune response. The Toll pathway is activated by Gram-positive bacteria and by fungi, whereas the immune deficiency (Imd) pathway responds to Gram-negative bacterial infection. The basic mechanisms of recognition of these various types of microbial infections by the adult fly are now globally understood. Even though some elements are missing in the intracellular pathways, numerous proteins and interactions have been identified. In this article, we present a general picture of the immune functions of NF-κB in Drosophila with all the partners involved in recognition and in the signaling cascades.The paramount roles of NF-κB family members in Drosophila development and host defense are now relatively well established and have been the subject of several in-depth reviews in recent years, including some from this laboratory (e.g., Hoffmann 2003; Minakhina and Steward 2006; Ferrandon et al. 2007; Lemaitre and Hoffmann 2007; Aggarwal and Silverman 2008). To avoid excessive duplication, we limit this text to the general picture that has evolved over nearly two decades—since the initial demonstration that the dorsal gene plays a role in dorsoventral patterning in embryogenesis of Drosophila and that it encodes a member of the NF-κB family of inducible transactivators (Nüsslein-Volhard et al. 1980; Steward 1987; Roth et al. 1989). In the early nineties, it became apparent that NF-κB also plays a role in the antimicrobial host defense of Drosophila (Engström et al. 1993; Ip et al. 1993; Kappler et al. 1993; Reichhart et al. 1993). We focus in this article on the immune functions of NF-κB and refer the reader to recent reviews for the roles of NF-κB in development (Roth 2003; Brennan and Anderson 2004; Moussian and Roth 2005; Minakhina and Steward 2006).The Drosophila genome codes for three NF-κB family members (Fig. 1). Dorsal and DIF (for dorsal-related immunity factor) are 70 kDa proteins, with a typical Rel homology domain, which is 45% identical to that of the mammalian counterparts c-Rel, Rel A, and Rel B. Dorsal and DIF lie some 10 kbp apart on the second chromosome and probably arose from a recent duplication (Meng et al. 1999). Both proteins are retained in the cytoplasm by binding to the same 54-kDa inhibitor protein Cactus, which is homologous to mammalian IκBs (Schüpbach and Wieshaus 1989; Geisler et al. 1992). The single Drosophila Cactus gene is closest to mammalian IκBα (Huguet et al. 1997). The third member of the family in Drosophila, Relish, is a 100-kDa protein with an amino-terminal Rel domain and a carboxy-terminal extension with typical ankyrin repeats, as found in Cactus and mammalian IκBs. Relish is similar to mammalian p100 and p105 and its activation requires proteolytic cleavage as in the case for these mammalian counterparts (reviewed in Hultmark 2003).Open in a separate windowFigure 1.The NF-κB and IκB proteins in Drosophila. The length in amino acids is indicated by numbers. REL, Rel-homology domain; NLS, nuclear localization sequence; PEST, proline, glutamic acid, serine, and threonine-rich segment; Ac, acidic domain.Put in simple terms, NF-κB family members function in the host defense of Drosophila to control the expression of genes encoding immune-responsive peptides and proteins. Prominent among the induced genes are those encoding peptides with direct antimicrobial activity. To exert this function, Dorsal and DIF are translocated to the nucleus following stimulus-induced degradation of the inhibitor Cactus, whereas Relish requires stimulus-induced proteolytic cleavage for nuclear translocation of its amino-terminal Rel domain. This paradigm is similar to that observed in mammalian immunity. Again, for the sake of simplicity, we may say that the stimulus-induced degradation of Cactus, and the concomitant release of Dorsal or DIF, is primarily observed during Gram-positive bacterial and fungal infections and mediated by the Toll signaling pathway. In contrast, stimulus-induced proteolytic cleavage of Relish, and concomitant nuclear translocation of its amino-terminal Rel domain, is the hallmark of the response to Gram-negative bacterial infection and mediated by the Imd signaling pathway. Whether these pathways are also involved in the multifaceted defense against viruses remains an open question (Zambon et al. 2005). The Toll pathway was further shown to be involved in hematopoiesis of flies (Qiu et al. 1998). Of note, the Cactus-NF-κB module also plays a central role in the elimination of Plasmodium parasites in infected mosquitoes (Frolet et al. 2006). In the following, we review our information of the two established signaling pathways, Toll and Imd, which lead to gene reprogramming through NF-κB in response to bacterial and fungal infections. We first consider the upstream mechanisms that mediate the recognition of infection and allow for a certain level of discrimination between invading microorganisms. Gene reprogramming in this context is best illustrated by the induction of the antimicrobial peptide genes, which serve as the most convenient readouts of the antimicrobial defense of Drosophila (see Samakovlis et al. 1990; Reichhart et al. 1992; Ferrandon et al. 1998). Flies produce at least seven families of mostly cationic, small-sized, membrane-active peptides, with spectra variously directed against Gram-positive (defensins) and Gram-negative (diptericins, attacins, and drosocin) bacteria, and against fungi (drosomycins and metchnikowins), or with overlapping spectra (cecropins) (reviewed in Bulet et al. 1999; Hetru et al. 2003). The primary site of biosynthesis of these peptides is the fat body, a functional equivalent of the mammalian liver. Blood cells also participate in the production of antimicrobial peptides. As a rule, these molecules are secreted into the hemolymph where they reach remarkably high concentrations to oppose invading microorganisms (Hetru et al. 2003). This facet of the antimicrobial host defense is generally referred to as systemic immune response. Of note, the gut and the tracheae also produce antimicrobial peptides in response to microbes (see Tzou et al. 2000; Onfelt Tingvall et al. 2001; Liehl et al. 2006; Nehme et al. 2007).During infection, the Toll and Imd pathways control the expression of hundreds of genes. In addition to the antimicrobial peptides, these genes encode proteases, putative cytokines, cytoskeletal proteins, and many peptides and proteins whose function in the host defense are still not understood (De Gregorio et al. 2001; Irving et al. 2001).     

Does Eucalyptus grandis invasion and removal affect soils and vegetation in the Eastern Cape Province,South Africa?

Many invasive alien plants drive changes in native community composition, structure and diversity. They alter soil nutrient regimes of native communities and affect native plant recovery outcomes following their removal. We assessed whether Eucalyptus grandis invasion and removal alters the soil physico‐chemical properties and native vegetation recovery in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. We collected samples from topsoil in E. grandis invaded sites (canopy cover > 75%), cleared sites (eight years ago) and native sites (canopy cover > 80%) and quantified soil moisture, concentrations of soil macro elements (N, C and P), pH and exchangeable cations (K, Ca, Mg, Na) as well as measured soil water repellency using the Water Droplet Penetration Time and infiltration. We conducted vegetation surveys in plots measuring 10 × 10 m. Invasion by E. grandis had varying effects on soil physico‐chemical properties, causing increase in soil pH and P, while decreasing total N and C. The removal of E. grandis also showed varying effects on soil physico‐chemical properties, but seems to have further triggered the loss of some soil nutrients (especially soil P). Soil water repellency (a measure of soil compaction) has improved in cleared sites to non‐repellent soils compared to repellent soils in invaded site. Eucalyptus grandis reduced species richness of the invaded sites. The presence of native species on cleared sites indicates a positive trajectory towards vegetation recovery. We conclude that E. grandis invasion and removal trigger varying effects on soil properties (both increases and decreases). For soil and vegetation restoration of cleared sites to be effective, active restoration techniques such as soil transfer, nutrient manipulation and native plant seeding should be considered.     

Has the Time Come for Big Science in Wildlife Health?

The consequences of wildlife emerging diseases are global and profound with increased burden on the public health system, negative impacts on the global economy, declines and extinctions of wildlife species, and subsequent loss of ecological integrity. Examples of health threats to wildlife include Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which causes a cutaneous fungal infection of amphibians and is linked to declines of amphibians globally; and the recently discovered Pseudogymnoascus (Geomyces) destructans, the etiologic agent of white nose syndrome which has caused precipitous declines of North American bat species. Of particular concern are the novel pathogens that have emerged as they are particularly devastating and challenging to manage. A big science approach to wildlife health research is needed if we are to make significant and enduring progress in managing these diseases. The advent of new analytical models and bench assays will provide us with the mathematical and molecular tools to identify and anticipate threats to wildlife, and understand the ecology and epidemiology of these diseases. Specifically, new molecular diagnostic techniques have opened up avenues for pathogen discovery, and the application of spatially referenced databases allows for risk assessments that can assist in targeting surveillance. Long-term, systematic collection of data for wildlife health and integration with other datasets is also essential. Multidisciplinary research programs should be expanded to increase our understanding of the drivers of emerging diseases and allow for the development of better disease prevention and management tools, such as vaccines. Finally, we need to create a National Fish and Wildlife Health Network that provides the operational framework (governance, policies, procedures, etc.) by which entities with a stake in wildlife health cooperate and collaborate to achieve optimal outcomes for human, animal, and ecosystem health.     

Living standards in settler South Africa, 1865–1920

We construct an anthropometric measure of living standards for White South Africans covering 55 years using five different military sources. Accounting for different selection across the forces, we find that prior to industrialisation, White South African males were amongst the tallest in the world. Rural living standards declined in response to natural disasters in the 1880s and 90s with those with the lowest living standards moving off the land and into the cities. We find a slight improvement in living standards after 1900 across all regions and occupations. During industrialisation, White males in South Africa continued to exhibit the highest living standards in the world as represented by their stature. Convergence to other nations in the early twentieth century shows, however, that while there may have been no industrialisation penalty, industrialisation did not lift living standards the way it did elsewhere.     

South–South Comparisons: A Syntegrated Approach to the Teaching of the Arts for Primary School Teacher Preparation in South Africa and Australia

In light of the tendency to present the arts in an integrated fashion in many education systems worldwide, this article examines the consequences of integration for discrete art forms. In particular, we investigate the advantages of adopting a syntegrated approach to the facilitation of arts in teacher preparation. A specific comparison between the implementation of arts curricula in South Africa and Australia is made. The disjuncture between policy and practice in arts education that has been reported internationally needs constant monitoring. We conclude that the heart of curriculum transfer and transformation lies in the classroom.     

Prawn community structure in the subtropical Mfolozi–Msunduzi estuarine system,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

The life cycles of many marine and freshwater prawn species are closely associated with estuarine habitat. Here, the prawn community of the Mfolozi–Msunduzi estuarine system is described and the system's potential as an alternative nursery for prawns during prolonged closure of the adjacent St Lucia estuarine system is examined. Sampling was conducted at five localities in summer and winter in 2007–2012. The Mfolozi–Msunduzi Estuary is a river-dominated system with mouth condition, sediment grain size and turbidity being the most important factors affecting the structure of its prawn community. Twelve prawn species were recorded, including five marine penaeid and five freshwater palaemonid species. The prawn community was numerically dominated by freshwater Macrobrachium equidens and two penaeids, Fenneropenaeus indicus and Metapenaeus monoceros. Significant differences were recorded between summer and winter samples, with freshwater species dominating the catch in summer, while penaeid species were dominant in winter. The marked seasonal change in the prawn community was related to strong river flows during summer creating low-salinity conditions, unsuitable for penaeid postlarval development, throughout most of the system. Compared to St Lucia, the Mfolozi–Msunduzi Estuary can be regarded as a poor alternative nursery area for penaeids during the summer peak postlarval recruitment period.