Fissiphalliidae, a new family of South American laniatorean harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones)

Fissiphalliidae, a new family of the Opiliones suborder Laniatores, is described in the superfamily Gonyleptoidea, based on a new genus (Fissiphallius n. gen.) und 3 new species (F. sturmi n. sp., F. spinulatus n. sp., F. sympatricus n. sp.) from Colombia. Most emphasized are the male genitalic characters, unique in Opiliones: A honzontally split truncus which results in a long movable (glans) and an immovable finger (distal part of the truncus). Both hide the extremely long stylus with the seminal opening at its end. In an expanded state, the movable finger is bent dorsally by an erectile vesicle. It is shown that male genitalic characters in Opiliones display clear functional and constructional traits on the family level. Those characters, if used appropriately, will demonstrate that several families in gonyleptoid Laniatores are polyphyletic and should be divided into several taxa of the family level.     

Predation,apparent competition,and the structure of prey communities

It is argued that alternate prey species in the diet of a food-limited generalist predator should reduce each other's equilibrial abundances, whether or not they directly compete. Such indirect, interspecific interactions are labeled apparent competition. Two examples are discussed in which an observed pattern of habitat segregation was at first interpreted as evidence for direct competition, but later interpreted as apparent competition resulting from shared predation. In order to study the consequences of predator-mediated apparent competition in isolation from other complicating factors, a model community is analyzed in which there is no direct interspecific competition among the prey. An explicit necessary condition for prey species coexistence is derived for the case of one predator feeding on many prey species. This model community has several interesting properties: (1) Prey species with high relative values for a parameter $\text{r}\text{a}$ are “keystone” species in the community; (2) prey species can be excluded from the community by “diffuse” apparent competition; (3) large changes in the niche breadth of the predator need not correspond to large changes in predator density; (4) the prey trophic level as a whole is regulated by the predator, yet each of its constituent species is regulated by both the predator and available resources; (5) increased productivity may either increase, decrease, or leave unchanged the number of species in the community; (6) a decrease in density-independent mortality may decrease species diversity. These conclusions seem to be robust to changes in the prey growth equations and to the incorporation of predator satiation. By contrast, adding prey refugia or predator switching to the model weakens these conclusions. If the predator can be satiated or switched, the elements a_ij comprising the community matrix may have signs opposite the long-term effect of j upon i. The effect of natural selection upon prey species coexistence is discussed. Unless r_i, K_i, and a_i are tightly coupled, natural selection within prey species i will tend to decrease the equilibrial abundance of species j.     

Sequence diversification of 45S rRNA ITS, trnH-psbA spacer, and matK genic regions in several Allium species

Allium is a very diverse genus with over 600 species distributed worldwide. Haplotype analyses of 45S rRNA ITS, trnH-psbA spacer, and matK gene sequences in 9 Allium species were carried out, subsequent to which phylogenetic relations of the nine species were also analyzed. Of the three genes, the nuclear 45S rRNA ITS sequences showed the highest variation with one haplotype in each species. The other two chloroplast genes revealed that more than one haplotype was present in each species, and each haplotype was present in several of the species. In the matK gene, EcoRI restriction revealed heteroplasmy in which the functional gene retains the EcoRI recognition site while the nonfunctional, pseudogene does not. Phylogenetic patterns were not consistent among the haplotypes of the 45 rRNA ITS, trnH-psbA spacer, and matK genic regions. This phylogenetic incongruency might be due to the presence of multiple haplotypes in each of the chloroplast genes. However, the inconsistency of the phylogenetic relationships, based on the 45S rRNA ITS sequences makes a strong case for further analysis.     

Data Concatenation,Bayesian Concordance and Coalescent-Based Analyses of the Species Tree for the Rapid Radiation of Triturus Newts

The phylogenetic relationships for rapid species radiations are difficult to disentangle. Here we study one such case, namely the genus Triturus, which is composed of the marbled and crested newts. We analyze data for 38 genetic markers, positioned in 3-prime untranslated regions of protein-coding genes, obtained with 454 sequencing. Our dataset includes twenty Triturus newts and represents all nine species. Bayesian analysis of population structure allocates all individuals to their respective species. The branching patterns obtained by data concatenation, Bayesian concordance analysis and coalescent-based estimations of the species tree differ from one another. The data concatenation based species tree shows high branch support but branching order is considerably affected by allele choice in the case of heterozygotes in the concatenation process. Bayesian concordance analysis expresses the conflict between individual gene trees for part of the Triturus species tree as low concordance factors. The coalescent-based species tree is relatively similar to a previously published species tree based upon morphology and full mtDNA and any conflicting internal branches are not highly supported. Our findings reflect high gene tree discordance due to incomplete lineage sorting (possibly aggravated by hybridization) in combination with low information content of the markers employed (as can be expected for relatively recent species radiations). This case study highlights the complexity of resolving rapid radiations and we acknowledge that to convincingly resolve the Triturus species tree even more genes will have to be consulted.     

Mosquito diversity (Diptera: Culicidae) and medical importance,in a bird sanctuary inside the flooded forest of Prek Toal,Cambodia

Wild birds have been identified as reservoirs of many pathogens transmissible to humans through bird-biting mosquitoes. Understanding the diversity of vector fauna in bird-conservation areas, is a cornerstone to later develop early detection systems and reduce the risk of emerging disease incidence. Prek Toal is a bird Sanctuary in the Tonle-Sap area in Cambodia hosting the largest migratory bird colony of southeast Asia. The Culicidae fauna was investigated during both dry and rainy seasons. In total, 8,224 mosquitoes from 6 genera and 25 species were collected. The two most represented genera were Anopheles (8 species) and Culex (11 species), while the dominant species was Culex vishnui (58.8%). During the rainy season, 1.6 fold more mosquitoes were caught and the number of species doubled. One of the most notable feature is the absence of any Aedinii mosquito which could be attributed to the low human density around the area, and the large populations of migratory birds. A total of 13 species from 3 genera are reported to be of medical importance. 6 medically-important species were collected in all 3 sites, and are known to bite both wild birds and humans: An. barbirostris, An. campestris, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, Cx. vishnui, Ma. indiana and Ma. uniformis. One of the most important feature is the over-abundance of Culex vishnui, largely dominant in Prek Toal throughout the seasons and the sites, and being present everywhere in Cambodia. This finding stresses its potentiality to act as bridge vectors in the case of new disease emergence.     

Functional analysis of Ultrabithorax in the silkworm, Bombyx mori, using RNAi

The formation of abdominal appendages in insects is suppressed by the Hox genes Ultrabithorax (Ubx) and abdominal-A (abd-A), but mechanisms of the suppression can differ among species. As the function of Ubx and abd-A has been described in only a few species, more data from various insects are necessary to elucidate the evolutionary transition of regulation on abdominal appendages. We examined the function of Ubx in the silkworm Bombyx mori (Bm-Ubx) by embryonic RNA interference (RNAi). This is the first case in which functional analysis for Ubx is performed in lepidopteran insects. Larvae treated with Bm-Ubx dsRNA displayed an additional pair of thoracic leg-like protuberances in A1, whereas the other abdominal segments had no transformation. Our results suggest that Bm-Ubx is a suppressor of leg development in A1.     

A new species of Asthenocotyle Robinson, 1961 (Monogenea: Microbothriidae), a skin parasite of the great lanternshark Etmopterus princeps Collett from the Azores, with a redescription of A. kaikourensis Robinson, 1961 and observations on A. taranakiensis Beverley-Burton, Klassen & Lester, 1987

Asthenocotyle azorensis n. sp. (Monogenea: Microbothriidae) is described from the dermal denticles of the great lanternshark Etmopterus princeps Collett off the Azores. The type-species of the genus, A. kaikourensis Robinson, 1961, is redescribed and additional observations are made on A. taranakiensis Beverley-Burton, Klassen & Lester, 1987. The generic diagnosis is revised. The new species is distinguished from its two congeners by the large size of the pharynx and fewer testes. The ejaculatory bulb of A. kaikourensis is much larger than those of A. taranakiensis and A. azorensis and is supplied with many ducts from an extensive field of male accessory gland-cells located outside the genital pouch and extending posteriorly to the region of the germarium and external seminal vesicle. Asthenocotyle taranakiensis is distinguished from the other two species by its copulatory sclerite, which forms a double loop, although this may not be the case when the copulatory organ is extended. The bodies of A. azorensis and A. kaikourensis are similar in shape, with the maximum width approximately 37% and 25%, respectively, of the total length from the anterior end. In addition to the relatively small size of the genital pouch and ejaculatory bulb in A. azorensis and A. taranakiensis, the vaginal opening is adjacent to the common genital opening. In A. kaikourensis, the vaginal opening is distant from and posterior to the common genital opening. The functional morphology of the copulatory organ of A. azorensis is considered. The relative importance, for the taxonomy of microbothriids, of the number of testes versus the anatomy of the copulatory complex is discussed.     

Beyond the EDGE with EDAM: Prioritising British Plant Species According to Evolutionary Distinctiveness,and Accuracy and Magnitude of Decline

Conservation biologists have only finite resources, and so must prioritise some species over others. The EDGE-listing approach ranks species according to their combined evolutionary distinctiveness and degree of threat, but ignores the uncertainty surrounding both threat and evolutionary distinctiveness. We develop a new family of measures for species, which we name EDAM, that incorporates evolutionary distinctiveness, the magnitude of decline, and the accuracy with which decline can be predicted. Further, we show how the method can be extended to explore phyogenetic uncertainty. Using the vascular plants of Britain as a case study, we find that the various EDAM measures emphasise different species and parts of Britain, and that phylogenetic uncertainty can strongly affect the prioritisation scores of some species.     

Comparison of the Giemsa C-Band karyotypes and the relationships of Allium cepa,A. fistulosum and A. galanthum

Giemsa C-band staining of somatic chromosomes in Allium cepa, A. cepa cv. Shallot, A. fistulosum and A. galanthum shows that these four taxa are characterised by all chromosomes having one band at each telomere, except chromosome arms with satellites, in which case the band is proximal to the nucleolar constriction. This similarity is correlated with common morphological characteristics and an ability of the three species to hybridize with one another, indicating that they have a close genetic relationship. The results indicate that Giemsa C-bands are evolutionarily conservative in this group and provide a useful criterion for determining relationships.     

A case of mistaken identity,Opuntia abjecta,long-lost in synonymy under the Caribbean species,O. triacantha,and a reassessment of the enigmatic O. cubensis

Opuntia abjecta and O. militaris have been placed in synonymy under the Caribbean species O. triacantha for the past 30 years. Recent molecular phylogenetic evidence has shown, however, that O. abjecta and O. triacantha are actually in two very different clades suggesting that the Floridian endemic O. abjecta should be recognized as a distinct species. Here, we summarize major morphological differences between O. abjecta and O. triacantha. We also include new sequence data from the rare Cuban taxon, O. militaris, in a molecular phylogenetic analysis to determine its relationship to O. triacantha and O. abjecta. We discuss the putative hybrid taxa O. cubensis and O. ochrocentra, which currently are treated as synonyms. We also show through analysis of morphological and molecular characters that these two taxa were derived from two independent origins from divergent maternal progenitors, confirming that O. ochrocentra should not be treated as synonymous with O. cubensis. A key is provided for identifying these taxonomically confusing taxa and their close relatives. This study emphasizes the distinctions among O. abjecta, O. militaris, and O. triacantha and illustrates that extreme caution must be employed when using herbarium specimens for identifying species of Opuntia. It also indicates that broad phytogeographic assumptions regarding species’ relationships in Opuntia may sometimes be misleading. Hybridization and polyploidy are common in Opuntia and have played a role in the formation of new species in this group as well. A neotype is here designated for O. triacantha.     

Occurrence and assemblage composition of millipedes (Myriapoda, Diplopoda) and terrestrial isopods (Crustacea, Isopoda, Oniscidea) in urban areas of Switzerland

Terrestrial isopods and millipedes, members of the invertebrate macro-decomposer guild, were collected through pitfall traps in three Swiss cities (Zurich, Lucerne, Lugano). A total of 7,198 individuals of 17 isopod species (7093 ind.), and 10 millipede species (105 ind.) were captured. Besides the Alpine endemic isopod (Trichoniscus alemannicus) and millipede (Cylindroiulus verhoeffi), urban assemblages were mainly composed of widespread, native European and even cosmopolitan species, which are frequent in anthropogenic areas. Overall species richness (isopods and millipedes combined) was similar in Zurich (17 species) and Lucerne (16), while only 13 species were sampled in Lugano. According to the Sørensen index of similarity, species composition of Zurich and Lucerne were more alike, while the one of Lugano was more distinct from the other two cities. This result can be explained by the spatial proximity of Zurich and Lucerne in the north of the Alps compared to Lugano, which is located more distantly and in the south of the Alps. Dominant isopods and millipedes in Zurich and Lucerne were found to be widespread synanthropic species in temperate Europe(Porcellio scaber, Trachelipus rathkii and Ophyiulus pilosus) while the dominant isopod in Lugano (Trachelipus razzautii) is a species with a north-eastern Mediterranean distribution. Our study reveals that the urban millipede and isopod fauna in Swiss cities mainly consists of widespread species, but species of narrower distribution (e.g. Trichoniscus alemannicus, Cylindroiulus verhoeffi) may also find suitable habitats in cities. Despite some signs of biotic homogenization, our study also found compositional differences of millipede and isopod assemblages between northern and southern cities that suggest geographical effects of the regional species pool.     

Assessing the suitability and safety of a well-known bud-galling wasp,Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae,for biological control of Acacia longifolia in Portugal

Acacia longifolia is a widespread invasive plant species in Portugal. In South Africa, it is controlled by a bud-galling wasp, Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae, which could also be used in Portugal. Biological control of invasive alien plants has received little consideration anywhere in Europe and has never been attempted in Portugal. The lack of a suitably-large quarantine facility necessitated the use of a novel approach to test non-target species in Portugal. Mature T. acaciaelongifoliae galls were shipped to Portugal from South Africa to obtain adult female wasps which were confined in Petri dishes each with a bud-bearing branch of one of 40 non-target plant species. The time spent by the wasps exploring and probing the buds was measured after which buds were dissected to detect any egg deposition. The results showed that T. acaciaelongifoliae did not respond to the buds of most (23) species. The females spent time on the buds of the other 17 species but only laid eggs in three species besides A. longifolia. Oviposition on Acacia melanoxylon was expected but was not anticipated on Vitis vinifera, vines, (where eggs were deposited externally in the pubescent coat of the buds) or on Cytisus striatus, broom, (where eggs were inserted into the buds as they are on A. longifolia). Subsequent trials on potted plants showed that galls only developed on A. longifolia. Field surveys in South Africa and Australia showed that galls never occur on either vines or broom. The implications of these findings for the use of T. acaciaelongifoliae for biological control of A. longifolia in Portugal are considered in relation to the wealth of experience and knowledge about the specificity of the wasp and the reliability of conducting host-specificity tests under confined conditions of cages.     

Integrative revision of the giant pill-millipede genus Sphaeromimus from Madagascar,with the description of seven new species (Diplopoda,Sphaerotheriida, Arthrosphaeridae)

The Malagasy giant pill-millipede genus Sphaeromimus de Saussure & Zehntner, 1902 is revised. Seven new species, S. titanus sp. n., S. vatovavy sp. n., S. lavasoa sp. n., S. andohahela sp. n., S. ivohibe sp. n., S. saintelucei sp. n., and S. andrahomana sp. n. were discovered, in one case with the help of sequence data, in the rainforests of southeastern Madagascar. The species are described using light- and scanning electron microscopy. A key to all 10 species of the genus is presented. All but one (S. andohahela) of the newly discovered species are microendemics each occurring in isolated forest fragments. The mitochondrial COI barcoding gene was amplified and sequenced for 18 Sphaeromimus specimens, and a dataset containing COI sequences of 28 specimens representing all Sphaeromimus species (except S. vatovavy) was analyzed. All species are genetically monophyletic. Interspecific uncorrected genetic distances were moderate (4–10%) to high (18–25%), whereas intraspecific variation is low (0–3.5%). Sequence data allowed the correct identification of three colour morphs of S. musicus, as well as the identity of a cave specimen, which although aberrant in its morphology and colouration, was genetically identical to the holotype of S. andrahoma.     

Biology and host specificity of Rhinusa pilosa,a recommended biological control agent of Linaria vulgaris

Linaria vulgaris Mill. (Plantaginaceae), common or yellow toadflax, is a Eurasian short-lived perennial forb invasive throughout temperate North America. Rhinusa pilosa (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) is a univoltine shoot-galling weevil found exclusively on L. vulgaris in Europe. Under no-choice test conditions, 13 non-native Linaria species exposed to R. pilosa were accepted for oviposition and most were found to be suitable, to varying degrees, for gall and larval development. Adult feeding and survival was minimal on native North American species in the plant tribe Antirrhineae which includes the target plant. In no-choice tests with 63 native North American species and 24 other non-target species outside Linaria, oviposition was limited to four native North American species. Only three larvae developed to the adult stage on Sairocarpus virga (A. Gray) D.A. Sutton, with no negative impact on plant growth. Risks to native flora from the release of R. pilosa are therefore expected to be minimal. The Technical Advisory Group for the Biological Control of Weeds (TAG—BCW) has recommended release of R. pilosa in September 2013.     

Biogeography and systematics of Aricia butterflies (Lepidoptera,Lycaenidae)

Butterflies of the Aricia species group represent a paradigm of unresolved taxonomy, both at the genus and species levels. We studied phylogenetic relationships, biogeography, and systematics based on genetic – nuclear and mitochondrial – and morphometric – external (wings) and internal (genitalia) – data. We show that Aricia is a monophyletic genus comprising the taxa Pseudoaricia, Ultraaricia and Umpria, which are here considered junior synonyms of Aricia. The taxa allous, inhonora, issekutzi, mandzhuriana, myrmecias and transalaica, which have often been raised to species rank, are shown to probably represent subspecies or synonyms. We show that montensis is likely a good species that is sister to all A. artaxerxes populations across the Palearctic region. The species A. anteros and A. morronensis are shown to display deep intraspecific divergences and they may harbor cryptic species. We also discovered that A. cramera and A. agestis exhibit a pattern of mutual exclusion on islands, and a parapatric distribution in mainland with a narrow contact zone where potential hybrids were detected. The lack of a prezygotic barrier that prevents their coexistence could explain this phenomenon. This study will hopefully contribute to the stability of the systematics of Aricia, a group with potential for the study of the link between speciation and biogeography.     

Molecular Phylogeny and Barcoding of Caulerpa (Bryopsidales) Based on the tufA,rbcL, 18S rDNA and ITS rDNA Genes

The biodiversity assessment of different taxa of the genus Caulerpa is of interest from the context of morphological plasticity, invasive potential of some species and biotechnological and pharmacological applications. The present study investigated the identification and molecular phylogeny of different species of Caulerpa occurring along the Indian coast inferred from tufA, rbcL, 18S rDNA and ITS rDNA nucleotide sequences. Molecular data confirmed the identification of 10 distinct Caulerpa species: C. veravalensis, C. verticillata, C. racemosa, C. microphysa, C. taxifolia, C. sertularioides, C. scalpelliformis, C. serrulata, C. peltata and C. mexicana. All datasets significantly supported the sister relationship between C. veravalensis and C. racemosa var. cylindracea. It was also concluded from the results that the specimen identified previously as C. microphysa and C. lentillifera could not be considered as separate species. The molecular data revealed the presence of multiple lineages for C. racemosa which can be resolved into separate species. All four markers were used to ascertain their utility for DNA barcoding. The tufA gene proved a better marker with monophyletic association as the main criteria for identification at the species level. The results also support the use of 18S rDNA insertion sequences to delineate the Caulerpa species through character-based barcoding. The ITS rDNA (5.8S-ITS2) phylogenetic analysis also served as another supporting tool. Further, more sequences from additional Caulerpa specimens will need to be analysed in order to support the role of these two markers (ITS rDNA and 18S insertion sequence) in identification of Caulerpa species. The present study revealed the phylogeny of Caulerpa as complete as possible using the currently available data, which is the first comprehensive report illustrating the molecular phylogeny and barcoding of the genus Caulerpa from Indian waters.     

Spermatogenesis of Zaprionus indianus and Zaprionus sepsoides (Diptera,Drosophilidae): Cytochemical,structural and ultrastructural characterization

Zaprionus indianus is a drosophilid native to the Afrotropical region that has colonized South America and exhibits a wide geographical distribution. In contrast, Z. sepsoides is restricted to certain African regions. The two species differ in the size of their testes, which are larger in Z. indianus than in Z. sepsoides. To better understand the biology and the degree of differentiation of these species, the current study evaluated spermatogenesis in males of different ages by conventional staining techniques and ultrastructural analysis. Spermatogenesis and the ultrastructure of spermatozoa were similar in the two species, and the diploid number was confirmed to be 2n = 12. A greater number of spermatozoa were observed in young Z. indianus (1–3 days old) compared to Z. sepsoides males, which showed a higher frequency of cells at the early stages of spermatogenesis. The head of the sperm was strongly marked by silver staining, lacto-acetic orcein and the Feulgen reaction; the P.A.S. reaction revealed glycogen granules in the testes of both species. Both species presented similar arrangement of microtubules (9+9+2), two mitochondrial derivatives of different size and 64 spermatozoa per bundle. Such similarity within the genus Zaprionus with other species of Drosophila, indicates that these structures are conserved in the family Drosophilidae. The differences observed the number and frequency of sperm cells in the early stages of spermatogenesis, between the young males of Z. indianus and Z. sepsoides, are features that may interfere with reproductive success and be related to the invasive potential of Z. indianus.     

Chromosome numbers and taxonomic notes for Mexican coreopsis,sections electra and pseudoagarista (compositae: heliantheae)

Notes on morphology and chromosome numbers are given for several species of MexicanCoreopsis, most of which were poorly known prior to recent collections.Coreopsis parvifolia (sectionElectra) is a large, shrubby, octoploid (2n=112) species apparently restricted to a small area in Puebla. It andC. cuneifolia (a diploid with 2n=28) appear to be closely related but differ by a number of morphological features in addition to ploidy level. A first chromosome report forC. pringlei (sectionPseudoagarista) shows this rare species to be diploid (2n=26), a fact which is in agreement with the base number of the section, i.e.,x=13. Additional collections of the very rareC. rudis andC. mcvaughii show them to be similar yet distinct species. Chromosome determinations forC. petrophila from Nayarit and Durango agree with previous counts for Jalisco populations of the species, i.e., 2n=26. Considerable morphological variation exists within this species but no subspecific entities are recognized.