Molecular targets underlying SUMO‐mediated neuroprotection in brain ischemia

SUMOylation (small ubiquitin‐like modifier conjugation) is an important post‐translational modification which is becoming increasingly implicated in the altered protein dynamics associated with brain ischemia. The function of SUMOylation in cells undergoing ischemic stress and the identity of small ubiquitin‐like modifier (SUMO) targets remain in most cases unknown. However, the emerging consensus is that SUMOylation of certain proteins might be part of an endogenous neuroprotective response. This review brings together the current understanding of the underlying mechanisms and downstream effects of SUMOylation in brain ischemia, including processes such as autophagy, mitophagy and oxidative stress. We focus on recent advances and controversies regarding key central nervous system proteins, including those associated with the nucleus, cytoplasm and plasma membrane, such as glucose transporters (GLUT1, GLUT4), excitatory amino acid transporter 2 glutamate transporters, K⁺ channels (K2P1, K_v1.5, K_v2.1), GluK2 kainate receptors, mGluR8 glutamate receptors and CB1 cannabinoid receptors, which are reported to be SUMO‐modified. A discussion of the roles of these molecular targets for SUMOylation could play following an ischemic event, particularly with respect to their potential neuroprotective impact in brain ischemia, is proposed.     

SUMOylation participates in induction of ischemic tolerance

Ground squirrels in hibernation torpor have been shown to have striking increases in global SUMOylation on tissue immunoblots. Here, we find evidence that global SUMOylation is also involved in ischemic tolerance in primary cortical neuronal cultures (from rats and mice) and SHSY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Cultured cortical neurons preconditioned by sublethal oxygen/glucose deprivation (OGD) were less vulnerable to severe OGD than non-preconditioned neurons. Preconditioned neurons maintained elevated SUMO-1 conjugation levels (and, to a lesser extent those of SUMO-2/3) on western blots in contrast to non-preconditioned cells. Further, cortical neurons and SHSY5Y cells in which transfected SUMO-1 or SUMO-2 were over-expressed showed increased survival after severe OGD. In contrast, cell cultures subjected to depletion of endogenous SUMO-1 protein by RNAi had reduced survival after exposure to this form of in vitro ischemia and an attenuated protective response to preconditioning. These findings suggest that maintenance of a globally elevated SUMO-1 (and maybe SUMO-2/3) conjugation level as revealed by immunoblot assays is a component of ischemic tolerance.     

SUMOylation of Nuclear γ-Actin by SUMO2 supports DNA Damage Repair against Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Myocardial infarction triggers oxidative DNA damage, apoptosis and adverse cardiac remodeling in the heart. Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) proteins mediate post-translational SUMOylation of the cardiac proteins in response to oxidative stress signals. Upregulation of isoform SUMO2 could attenuate myocardial injury via increasing protein SUMOylation. The present study aimed to discover the identity and cardioprotective activities of SUMOylated proteins. A plasmid vector for expressing N-Strep-SUMO2 protein was generated and introduced into H9c2 rat cardiomyocytes. The SUMOylated proteins were isolated with Strep-Tactin^® agarose beads and identified by MALDI-TOF-MS technology. As a result, γ-actin was identified from a predominant protein band of ~42 kDa and verified by Western blotting. The roles of SUMO2 and γ-actin SUMOylation were subsequently determined in a mouse model of myocardial infarction induced by ligating left anterior descending coronary artery and H9c2 cells challenged by hypoxia-reoxygenation. In vitro lentiviral-mediated SUMO2 expression in H9c2 cells were used to explore the role of SUMOylation of γ-actin. SUMOylation of γ-actin by SUMO2 was proven to be a new cardioprotective mechanism from the following aspects: 1) SUMO2 overexpression reduced the number of TUNEL positive cells, the levels of 8-OHdG and p-γ-H2ax while promoted the nuclear deposition of γ-actin in mouse model and H9c2 cell model of myocardial infarction; 2) SUMO-2 silencing decreased the levels of nuclear γ-actin and SUMOylation while exacerbated DNA damage; 3) Mutated γ-actin (K⁶⁸R/K²⁸⁴R) void of SUMOylation sites failed to protect cardiomyocytes against hypoxia-reoxygenation challenge. The present study suggested that SUMO2 upregulation promoted DNA damage repair and attenuated myocardial injury via increasing SUMOylation of γ-actin in the cell nucleus.     

远端缺血后处理对脑缺血保护作用的研究进展

近20多年来人们对脑缺血损伤的保护研究很多,但真正能将脑缺血保护从基础研究应用到临床治疗的措施甚少。多数基础研究表明缺血预处理对大鼠脑缺血具有保护作用,然而由于脑缺血的不可预见性,研究者们将目标转向了缺血后处理。远端缺血后处理是指在非缺血器官交替实施短时间的缺血和再灌注后对缺血器官所产生的作用。由于脑组织本身对缺血的敏感,很难控制缺血后处理的程度,因此远端缺血后处理被应用到脑缺血的保护研究具有很强的临床应用价值,其机制可能与氧自由基、神经传导、蛋白质、内质网应激、Akt信号通路、线粒体途径、mitoKATP和阿片受体有关。本文主要就近几年远程缺血后处理对脑缺血保护的概念、实施方法、保护作用及分子机制做一综述。     

Analysis of Human Cytomegalovirus-Encoded SUMO Targets and Temporal Regulation of SUMOylation of the Immediate-Early Proteins IE1 and IE2 during Infection

Post-translational modification of proteins by members of the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) is involved in diverse cellular functions. Many viral proteins are SUMO targets and also interact with the cellular SUMOylation system. During human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection, the immediate-early (IE) proteins IE1 and IE2 are covalently modified by SUMO. IE2 SUMOylation promotes its transactivation activity, whereas the role of IE1 SUMOylation is not clear. We performed in silico, genome-wide analysis to identify possible SUMOylation sites in HCMV-encoded proteins and evaluated their modification using the E. coli SUMOylation system and in vitro assays. We found that only IE1 and IE2 are substantially modified by SUMO in E. coli, although US34A was also identified as a possible SUMO target in vitro. We also found that SUMOylation of IE1 and IE2 is temporally regulated during viral infection. Levels of SUMO-modified form of IE1 were increased during the early phase of infection, but decreased in the late phase when IE2 and its SUMO-modified forms were expressed at high levels. IE2 expression inhibited IE1 SUMOylation in cotransfection assays. As in IE2 SUMOylation, PIAS1, a SUMO E3 ligase, interacted with IE1 and enhanced IE1 SUMOylation. In in vitro assays, an IE2 fragment that lacked covalent and non-covalent SUMO attachment sites, but was sufficient for PIAS1 binding, effectively inhibited PIAS1-mediated SUMOylation of IE1, indicating that IE2 expression negatively regulates IE1 SUMOylation. We also found that the IE2-mediated downregulation of IE1 SUMOylation correlates with the IE1 activity to repress the promoter containing the interferon stimulated response elements. Taken together, our data demonstrate that IE1 and IE2 are the main viral SUMO targets in HCMV infection and that temporal regulation of their SUMOylation may be important in the progression of this infection.     

OTS1‐dependent deSUMOylation increases tolerance to high copper levels in Arabidopsis

The conjugation of SUMO(small ubiquitin-like modifier) to protein substrates is a reversible process(SUMOylation/deSUMOylation) that regulates plant development and stress responses. The essential metal copper(Cu) is required for normal plant growth, but excess amounts are toxic. The SUMO E_3 ligase, SIZ_1, and SIZ_1-mediated SUMOylation function in plant tolerance to excess Cu. It is unknown whether deSUMOylation also contributes to Cu tolerance in plants. Here, we report that OTS_1, a protease that cleaves SUMO from its substrate proteins,participates in Cu tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana(Arabidopsis). OTS_1 loss-of-function mutants(ots_(1-2) and ots_(1-3))displayed increased sensitivity to excess Cu. Redox homeostasis and the balance between SUMOylation and deSUMOylation were disrupted in the ots_(1-3) mutant under excess Cu conditions. The ots_(1-3) mutant accumulated higher levels of Cu in both shoots and roots compared to wild type.Specific Cu-related metal transporter genes were upregulated due to the loss-of-function of OTS_1, which might explain the high Cu levels in ots_(1-3). These results suggest that the SUMOylation/deSUMOylation machinery is activated in response to excess Cu, and modulates Cu homeostasis and tolerance by regulating both Cu uptake and detoxification. Together, our findings provide insight into the biological function and regulatory role of SUMOylation/deSUMOylation in plant tolerance to Cu.     

The deubiquitinase USP36 promotes snoRNP group SUMOylation and is essential for ribosome biogenesis

SUMOylation plays a crucial role in regulating diverse cellular processes including ribosome biogenesis. Proteomic analyses and experimental evidence showed that a number of nucleolar proteins involved in ribosome biogenesis are modified by SUMO. However, how these proteins are SUMOylated in cells is less understood. Here, we report that USP36, a nucleolar deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB), promotes nucleolar SUMOylation. Overexpression of USP36 enhances nucleolar SUMOylation, whereas its knockdown or genetic deletion reduces the levels of SUMOylation. USP36 interacts with SUMO2 and Ubc9 and directly mediates SUMOylation in cells and in vitro. We show that USP36 promotes the SUMOylation of the small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein (snoRNP) components Nop58 and Nhp2 in cells and in vitro and their binding to snoRNAs. It also promotes the SUMOylation of snoRNP components Nop56 and DKC1. Functionally, we show that knockdown of USP36 markedly impairs rRNA processing and translation. Thus, USP36 promotes snoRNP group SUMOylation and is critical for ribosome biogenesis and protein translation.     

HIF-1α的泛素化和SUMO化修饰

低氧诱导因子-1（hypoxia-inducible factor-1,HIF-1）是异二聚体的转录因子,由氧敏感的α亚基和在细胞内稳定表达的β亚基组成,在细胞低氧应答反应中起核心作用,能调节100多种涉及低氧应激下细胞适应和存活的靶基因.泛素是一种由76个氨基酸残基组成的保守性多肽,广泛存在真核生物中.SUMO是泛素样蛋白家族成员,分子量约为12 kD的小蛋白,从拟南芥到人类普遍存在.泛素和SUMO可共价结合许多靶底物蛋白,对其进行翻译后修饰,该过程分别称为泛素化与SUMO化.近来研究显示,HIF-1α的翻译后修饰如泛素化、SUMO化可调节其的稳定性,从而改变HIF 1α的转录激活活性.本文主要就HIF-1α泛素化及SUMO化修饰等问题作一综述.     

TIPE2, a Novel Regulator of Immunity,Protects against Experimental Stroke

The inflammatory responses accompanying stroke are recognized to contribute to secondary ischemic injury. TIPE2 is a very recently identified negative regulator of inflammation that maintains immune homeostasis. However, it is unknown whether TIPE2 is expressed in the brain and contributes to the regulation of cerebral diseases. In this study, we explored the potential roles of TIPE2 in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. TIPE2^−/− mice were used to assess whether TIPE2 provides neuroprotection following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and in vitro primary cerebral cell cultures were used to investigate the expression and regulation of TIPE2. Our results show that genetic ablation of the Tipe2 gene significantly increased the cerebral volume of infarction and neurological dysfunction in mice subjected to MCAO. Flow cytometric analysis revealed more infiltrating macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes in the ischemic hemisphere of TIPE2^−/− mice. The responses to inflammatory cytokines and chemokines were significantly increased in TIPE2^−/− mouse brain after MCAO. We further observed that TIPE2 was highly induced in WT mice after cerebral ischemia and was expressed mainly in microglia/macrophages, but not in neurons and astrocytes. Finally, we found that regulation of TIPE2 expression was associated with NADPH oxidase activity. These findings demonstrate, for the first time, that TIPE2 is involved in the pathogenesis of stroke and suggest that TIPE2 plays an essential role in a signal transduction pathway that links the inflammatory immune response to specific conditions after cerebral ischemia. Targeting TIPE2 may be a new therapeutic strategy for stroke treatment.     

植物蛋白质SUMO化修饰体外高效检测系统

蛋白质SUMO化修饰是一种调控蛋白命运的关键修饰方式, 广泛参与植物生长发育及逆境胁迫响应。SUMO化修饰过程主要由激活酶(E1)-结合酶(E2)-连接酶(E3)组成的级联酶促反应催化, 其关键酶组分将SUMO分子缀合至底物蛋白的赖氨酸残基, 形成共价异肽键以完成SUMO化修饰过程。该文报道了1种植物蛋白质SUMO化修饰体外高效检测系统, 通过在大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)中构建拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana) SUMO化修饰的关键通路实现对底物蛋白的SUMO化修饰, 结果可通过免疫印迹进行检测。该系统可以简化植物蛋白质SUMO化修饰的检测流程, 为植物细胞SUMO化修饰的功能研究提供了有力工具。