The trade in bear parts from Myanmar: an illustration of the ineffectiveness of enforcement of international wildlife trade regulations

We assessed the effectiveness of national and international wildlife trade regulations in Asia by surveying four wildlife markets in Myanmar for bears and bear parts. Bears are protected in Myanmar and neighbouring countries, and are included in CITES Appendix I, precluding international trade. Three of the four wildlife markets were situated at the border with neighbouring countries (China and Thailand) whereas the fourth, situated in Myanmar’s interior, also catered to international markets. During seven checks (1999–2006) we recorded 1,200 bear parts, representing a minimum of 215 individual bears. Most items were from Asiatic black bears Ursus thibetanus but also sun bear Helarctos malayanus parts were offered for sale. There were significant temporal and spatial differences in what items were offered for sale. Prices were low (USD 4–40 per item) and the total monetary value of the items for sale was USD 6,500–9,500 (not including gall bladders). Carcasses, skulls, canines, paws, claws, whole skins, pieces of skin, gall bladders and derivates, were openly displayed, with vendors being frank about prices, origin, and potential buyers. Only in the interior were prices quoted in the local currency; at the other three markets currencies of the neighbouring countries were used. Legal (international) trade in bears or bear parts from Myanmar is virtually non-existent, and the observed trade in bear parts strongly indicates a serious lack of enforcement effort. International trade in bear parts from Myanmar is significant, and open, and we conclude that the enforcement of wildlife trade regulations, at least when they concerns bear species, have by and large failed.     

Spatial distribution and habitat preference of the endangered tarantula, Brachypelma klaasi (Araneae: Theraphosidae) in Mexico

Brachypelma, a genus of nine endangered tarantula species in Mexico, is the only group of spiders included in Appendix II of CITES, owing to habitat degradation and illegal trafficking. However, while the majority of the nine species of Brachypelma are thought to be threatened, little is known of their ecology and distribution. Brachypelma klaasi is the rarest species, occurring in a few isolated populations on the Pacific coast of Mexico. We present an analysis of population distribution and micro-habitat requirements of B. klaasi over different spatial scales within the biological reserve at Chamela, Jalisco as part of a wider ecological study of the endangered Brachypelma group. Burrows and dispersing spiders were confined to a southern area of the reserve covering approximately 0.5 km². Within this area, burrows were not aggregated at lower spatial scales (2⁴–2¹⁶ m²), unlike other related species. Also, there was no evidence that intra-specific interactions (either positive or negative interactions) influenced the distribution of burrows. Distribution of burrows at low spatial scales was related to low afternoon temperatures and high humidity in mid-summer. These abiotic factors may influence the survival and development of eggs and spiderlings, and appear to be more important in governing the distribution of B. klaasi than are food resources or intra-specific interactions. We discuss how these findings may facilitate the re-introduction of captive-bred individuals of B. klaasi and other Brachypelma species.     

Wildlife forensics using mitochondrial DNA sequences: Species identification based on hairs collected in the field and confiscated tanned Felidae leathers

To identify species based on samples without recognizable morphological characteristics, DNA-based approaches are the best option. Here, we describe two cases of the determination of species and geographical origin of wildlife specimens under the regulation of international treaties and domestic laws related to wildlife management in South Korea. First, hairs of suspected wild or reared endangered Asiatic black bears were analyzed using cytochrome oxidase I and the control region. Confiscated Felidae leathers were also investigated using cytochrome b, but they were proven to be fabricated canine leathers. These results were used as scientific evidence for wildlife-related law enforcement. Our results suggest that unrecognizable wildlife specimens can be identified efficiently using DNA sequence-based analysis. Finally, this study shows that conservation genetics research and its applications can be incorporated into wildlife forensic studies.     

Indirect effects of domestic and wild herbivores on butterflies in an African savanna

Indirect interactions driven by livestock and wild herbivores are increasingly recognized as important aspects of community dynamics in savannas and rangelands. Large ungulate herbivores can both directly and indirectly impact the reproductive structures of plants, which in turn can affect the pollinators of those plants. We examined how wild herbivores and cattle each indirectly affect the abundance of a common pollinator butterfly taxon, Colotis spp., at a set of long‐term, large herbivore exclosure plots in a semiarid savanna in central Kenya. We also examined effects of herbivore exclusion on the main food plant of Colotis spp., which was also the most common flowering species in our plots: the shrub Cadaba farinosa. The study was conducted in four types of experimental plots: cattle‐only, wildlife‐only, cattle and wildlife (all large herbivores), and no large herbivores. Across all plots, Colotis spp. abundances were positively correlated with both Cadaba flower numbers (adult food resources) and total Cadaba canopy area (larval food resources). Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that floral resources drove the abundance of Colotis butterflies. Excluding browsing wildlife increased the abundances of both Cadaba flowers and Colotis butterflies. However, flower numbers and Colotis spp. abundances were greater in plots with cattle herbivory than in plots that excluded all large herbivores. Our results suggest that wild browsing herbivores can suppress pollinator species whereas well‐managed cattle use may benefit important pollinators and the plants that depend on them. This study documents a novel set of ecological interactions that demonstrate how both conservation and livelihood goals can be met in a working landscape with abundant wildlife and livestock.     

Identification of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia genotypes infecting animals in Sydney's water catchments

To identify the animal sources for Cryptosporidium and Giardia contamination, we genotyped Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. in wildlife from Sydney’s water catchments using sequence analysis at the 18S rRNA locus for Cryptosporidium and 18S rRNA and glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) for Giardia. A total of 564 faecal samples from 16 different host species were analysed. Cryptosporidium was identified in 8.5% (48/564) samples from eight host species and Giardia was identified in 13.8% (78/564) from seven host species. Eight species/genotypes of Cryptosporidium were identified. Five G. duodenalis assemblages were detected including the zoonotic assemblages A and B.     

The detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">hip</Emphasis>O gene by real-time PCR in thermophilic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Campylobacter</Emphasis> spp. with very weak and negative reaction of hippurate hydrolysis

A total of 190 Campylobacter spp. isolates, of which 34 gave the result of very weak activity, and 156 gave the negative activity in the test for hippurate hydrolysis were characterized. The genomic DNA was isolated from a fresh culture of each isolate and the real-time PCR, targeting the hipO gene, was used to confirm the species distribution of Campylobacter isolates. The hipO gene was detected in 17 isolates (11%) within the total of 156 negative isolates for hippurate hydrolysis. Out of 34 isolates with very weak activity, 19 isolates (56%) were also found to be positive for hipO gene and characterized as C. jejuni. The real-time PCR assay used in this study could be employed for more accurate diagnosis of Campylobacter infections at species level after the biochemical characterization based on hippuricase activity of the isolates. This could also provide important data for the epidemiology of infections associated with these zoonotic pathogens.     

Evolutionary change at the5S Dna loci of species in theTriticeae

Previous studies have shown that two separate loci for 5S DNA sequences may exist within a species. Two size classes have been tentatively assigned in the ranges 327–468 bp (chromosome 1), and 469–500 bp (chromosome 5) and the entire data-base was subjected to various numerical taxonomic analyses. The results confirm the existence of two lineages of 5S DNA sequences represented by the two size classes.Hordeum vulgare is separate from the species known also asCritesion and, together withDasypyrum, occupy an intermediate position between the two size classes. The 5S DNA units fromTriticum spp. that have also been namedAegilops spp. in other classifications appear as a distinct group withinTriticum spp. at both loci. The consensus 5S DNA sequence fromPsathyrostachys is remote fromHordeum s.l. in contrast to opinions based on morphology. Other aspects are detailed and discussed, including the inadequacy of the computing methods used as well as the need for more data in view of the large amount of homoplasy. The merit of using the spacer for phylogenetic inference is also discussed.     

Tick tubes reduce blacklegged tick burdens on white-footed mice in Pennsylvania,USA

Lyme disease cases are increasing in the United States. The vector of the pathogen that causes Lyme disease is the blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis Say) (Acari:Ixodidae). While there are several tick control options, many are expensive or involve large-scale or ecological interventions such as landscape acaricide spraying or wildlife baiting. Tick control tubes, cardboard tubes with acaricide-treated cotton that can be used as nesting material by tick hosts, offer an alternative to more invasive tick control by treating tick hosts with an acaricide. In this study, tick tubes with cotton treated with two formulations of acaricide and water as a control were evaluated for wildlife use and for tick burden reductions on Peromyscus spp. an important reservoir host for the Lyme disease pathogen. Tick tubes were deployed for four weeks. Ticks parasitizing Peromyscus spp. and cotton use by wildlife were evaluated pre-deployment and post-deployment. Cotton from both treatments was used similarly, and permethrin-treated cotton was used more frequently than the control. In addition, I. scapularis were eliminated from hosts captured in treatment plots post-tick tube deployment. Tick tubes show promise as a tool for tick control on Peromyscus spp., especially as part of an integrated pest management plan.     

Note on the occurrence of Pseudo-nitzschia australis and domoic acid in squid from Monterey Bay, CA (USA)

Over the past decade diatom blooms of domoic acid (DA)-producing Pseudo-nitzschia spp. have been responsible for numerous marine mammal and bird mortalities in Monterey Bay, CA. One possible toxin vector is the market squid, Loligo opalescens, a small pelagic mollusk that plays an important role in the near-shore food web of the California Current ecosystem as a favored vertebrate prey species. This study examined the trophic link between toxic Pseudo-nitzschia and L. opalescens using toxin and stomach content analyses of animals collected from Monterey Bay, CA in 2000. Receptor binding assay data (confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry), demonstrated the presence of DA in squid during a toxic Pseudo-nitzschia event, with P. australis frustules observed in stomach samples. Though DA levels were low (<0.5 μg DA g⁻¹ tissue) in L. opalescens during the study period, it is now clear that this potent neurotoxin can occur in squid and is likely delivered through its krill prey species, which are known to retain DA after feeding on toxic Pseudo-nitzschia. Our findings suggest that further study of the relationship between Pseudo-nitzschia blooms and DA contamination of squid is warranted to better evaluate the potential health risk to humans and wildlife associated with this major commercial seafood species and important prey item.     

Reliable and rapid discrimination of congeneric species by mtDNA SNP analysis by multiplex PCR: application on three Trachurus and two Mullus fish species as model cases

We present a reliable, time-saving, and cost-effective multiplex PCR assay for discriminating congeneric species. Three fish species of the genus Trachurus and two of the genus Mullus served as model cases. Our multiplex PCR method interrogates species-specific diagnostic mitochondrial single nucleotide polymorphisms (mtSNPs). We selected two sets of mtSNPs that are organized in two multiplex systems for the Trachurus and the Mullus species, respectively. In both systems, all individuals tested could be safely assigned to one of the three Trachurus or two Mullus species. This novel SNP typing system offers a convenient and robust DNA profiling system suitable for large-scale identification of commercial fish species, for species with cryptic larvae or during juvenile stages, as well as for wildlife forensics. Handling editor: Christian Sturmbauer     

Prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in ixodid ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) collected from European wild boar (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sus scrofa</Emphasis>) and Iberian red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus hispanicus</Emphasis>) in central Spain

Emerging tick-borne diseases of humans and animals have occurred frequently during the past 30 years. These disease outbreaks appear to result from changes in the distribution of tick and vertebrate hosts, and the introduction of humans and domestic animals into tick–pathogen–wildlife cycles. Use of molecular technologies now available for identification of pathogens in ticks can provide valuable information that allows for risk analysis of emerging tick-borne diseases. In this study, the prevalence of selected pathogens in ticks collected in six locations in central Spain from the major wild ungulate species, European wild boar (Sus scrofa) and Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus), was determined by PCR. Tick species collected included Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor marginatus, Rhipicephalus bursa and Hyalomma m. marginatum. Pathogens identified in ticks included piroplasmids, Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp. and Rickettsia spp. Piroplasmids were identified in all tick species except I. ricinus. Ehrlichia spp. were detected in all tick species and collection locations, while Rickettsia spp., which proved to be R. slovaca and a recently identified Rickettsia sp. DnS28, were identified only in D. marginatus. A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum were detected in D. marginatus, R. bursa and Hy. m. marginatum. Concurrent infections of these pathogens were frequently observed in ticks. Notably, A. phagocytophilum, which is infective for a broad host range that includes humans and domestic and wild animals, was identified in ticks from all collection locations. The variety of ticks and tick-borne pathogens demonstrated in this study suggests a risk in central Spain for the emergence of tick-borne diseases in humans and domestic animals.     

Phylogenetic significance of stylar features in genus Vicia (Leguminosae): an analysis with molecular phylogeny

Tribe Fabeae consists of five genera, Lathyrus (160 spp.), Lens (4–6 spp.), Pisum (2–3 spp.), Vavilovia (monotypic), and Vicia (160 spp.), and shows a diversity in stylar features. At least six different stylar types are known in the tribe. In order to reclassify the tribe at the rank of genus, we tried to discover apomorphies in stylar features using a molecular phylogenetic study. We surveyed internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA of representative species, selected from each group having different types of styles in the tribe. We paid particular attention in sampling to members of Vicia section Vicilla, as stylar features are heterogeneous within this section. Consequently, our sample set included 15 species of section Vicilla, 23 species of other Fabeae, and two species of Trifolieae, which were used as a sister group of Fabeae. Based on our analysis, we found that a laterally compressed style and an abaxially tufted hairy style would be advanced against a dorsiventrally compressed style and an evenly hairy style, respectively, in genus Vicia. The species group, which shares the latter apomorphy, is composed of 56 species and was dispersed into 11 sections of two subgenera in the recent system of genus Vicia. We consider future revision of Fabeae should treat this species group as a single higher taxon.     

Illegal hunting and law enforcement during a period of economic decline in Zimbabwe: A case study of northern Gonarezhou National Park and adjacent areas

Illegal hunting of wildlife, or top-down harvesting, is a major issue in today's society, particularly in tropical ecosystems. There has been widespread concern about increasing illegal hunting of wildlife in most conservation areas in Zimbabwe following the political instability and economic decline the country faced since 2000. In this study, we focused on the northern Gonarezhou National Park (GNP), a large and unfenced protected area, and adjacent communal areas in southern Zimbabwe. We hypothesised that illegal hunting activities would (1) be perceived to have increased due to economic collapse and (2) vary with law enforcement efforts. A total of 236 local residents from eight villages adjacent to the northern GNP were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires from December 2010 to May 2011, and law enforcement data for northern GNP between 2000 and 2010 were retrieved from the park law enforcement database. A total of 26 animal species were reportedly hunted. Bushmeat consumption and the need for local trade to raise income were reported as the main reasons behind illegal hunting. Contrary to the first hypothesis, the majority of respondents (n = 156, 66%) reported that illegal hunting activities had declined between 2000 and 2010 largely due to increased park protection as also supported by law enforcement data. A total of 22 animal species were recorded as having been illegally hunted in northern GNP. The number of illegal hunters arrested declined with increased law enforcement efforts although the number of wire snares recovered and hunting dogs shot appeared to increase following increased law enforcement efforts. These results partly support the second hypothesis that illegal hunting activities would vary with law enforcement efforts.     

Molecular identification of crocodile species using novel primers for forensic analysis

All crocodilians are under varying degrees of threat due to over exploitation and these species have been listed in Appendix I or II of CITES. The lack of molecular techniques for the identification of confiscated samples makes it difficult to enforce the law. Conclusive forensic identification of species requires a complete gene sequence which is difficult in case of degraded samples. We have developed two novel sets of primers to amplify two partial cytochrome b gene sequences of six crocodile species i.e. Crocodylus palustris, Crocodylus porosus, Crocodylus siamensis, Crocodylus niloticus, Gavialis gangeticus and Caiman crocodilus. These partial sequences were edited to give a complete cyt b gene sequence, which can be used as an effective tool for forensic authentication of crocodile species. A phylogeny of crocodile species was reconstructed using these sequences. The described primers hold great promise in forensic identification of crocodile species, which can aid in the effective enforcement of law and conservation of these ancient species.     

Genetic variation in the wattle wilt pathogenCeratocystis albofundus

Ceratocystis albofundus is an important wilt pathogen on exoticAcacia mearnsii trees in South Africa. It is known only from this country and has also been reported from nativeProtea spp., but it is not clear if the pathogen is native or introduced to South Africa. This study was conduced to determine the nuclear and mitochondrial gene diversity in a population ofC. albofundus and to compare this diversity with that of otherCeratocystis species. Isolates were collected from a number of geographic regions in South Africa. Total genomic, DNA was extracted from each isolate, digested withPstl and probed with the radioactively labelled oligonucleotide marker (CAT)₅ to determine nulear DNA diversity. For the determination of mitochondrial DNA diversity, the RFLPs ofHaeIII digests were scored directly without probing. Nei’s gene diversity (H) was determined and a distance matrix was developed for each set of markers and analyzed using UPGMA. TheC. albofundus population was found to have a high level of both nuclear and mitochondrial gene diversity when compared with published data of populations of otherCeratocystis spp. This further supports the hypothesis thatC. albofundus is native to South Africa.     

Rickettsial Agents from Parasitic Dermanyssoidea (Acari: Mesostigmata)

Mites are often overlooked as vectors of pathogens, but have been shown to harbor and transmit rickettsial agents such as Rickettsia akari and Orientia tsutsugamushi. We screened DNA extracts from 27 mites representing 25 species of dermanyssoids for rickettsial agents such as Anaplasma, Bartonella, Rickettsia, and Wolbachia by PCR amplification and sequencing. DNA from Anaplasma spp., a novel Bartonella sp., Spiroplasma sp., Wolbachia sp., and an unclassified Rickettsiales were detected in mites. These could represent mite-borne bacterial agents, bacterial DNA from blood meals, or novel endosymbionts of mites.     

High-throughput DNA extraction from forest trees

It is difficult to extract pure high-quality DNA from trees, which may not be amenable to advances in extraction methods suitable for other plants. A new commercial high-throughput DNA extraction system, using a silica binding matrix for purification and a multisample mixer mill for tissue disruption, was evaluated for its suitability withEucalyptus spp.,Pinus spp., andAraucaria cunninghamii (hoop pine). DNA suitable for a range of molecular biology applications was successfully extracted from all genera. The method was highly reliable when tested in more than 500 preparations and could be adapted to different tree species with relatively minor modifications.     

Molecular characterization of pathogenic Fusarium species in cucurbit plants from Kermanshah province, Iran

Fusarium is one of the important phytopathogenic genera of microfungi causing serious losses on cucurbit plants in Kermanshah province, the largest area of cucurbits plantation in Iran. Therefore, the objectives in this study were to isolate and identify disease-causing Fusarium spp. from infected cucurbit plants, to ascertain their pathogenicity, and to determine their phylogenetic relationships. A total of 100 Fusarium isolates were obtained from diseased cucurbit plants collected from fields in different geographic regions in Kermanshah province, Iran. According to morphological characters, all isolates were identified as Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium proliferatum, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium semitectum and Fusarium solani. All isolates of the five Fusarium spp. were evaluated for their pathogenicity on healthy cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and honeydew melon (Cucumis melo) seedlings in the glasshouse. F. oxysporum caused damping-off in 20–35 days on both cucurbit seedlings tested. Typical stem rot symptoms were observed within 15 days after inoculation with F. solani on both seedlings. Based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, the five Fusarium species were divided into two major groups. In particular, isolates belonging to the F. solani species complex (FSSC) were separated into two RFLP types. Grouping among Fusarium strains derived from restriction analysis was in agreement with criteria used in morphological classification. Therefore, the PCR-ITS-RFLP method provides a simple and rapid procedure for the differentiation of Fusarium strains at species level. This is the first report on identification and pathogenicity of major plant pathogenic Fusarium spp. causing root and stem rot on cucurbits in Iran.     

新疆列当的种类、分布及其防治技术研究进展

列当是一种根寄生种子植物,是我国进境植物检疫对象,同时也是我国的内检对象。新疆是我国列当发生面积最大、危害最重和种类最多的地区,对新疆的主要经济作物,如加工番茄、向日葵、甜瓜等已造成严重危害。在新疆文献记载的列当种类有18种,常见的有埃及列当、大麻列当、向日葵列当和弯管列当,并已广泛分布于新疆各县、市、团场。列当的防治技术主要包括检疫、田间管理、轮作等,但目前的防治效果均不理想。本文通过对新疆列当的相关文献搜集、整理分析,总结了目前新疆列当的种类、分布情况,以及综合防治技术,为今后列当的研究和防治提供参考。