β-Glucosidase activities and HCN liberation in unimbibed and imbibed seeds, and the induction of cocklebur seed germination by cyanogenic glycosides

In many seed species, the major source of HCN evolved during water imbibition is cyanogenic glycosides. The present investigation was performed to elucidate the role of endogenous cyanogenic glycosides in the control of seed germination and to examine the involvment of β-glucosidase in this process. All seed species used here contained some activities of β-glucosidase already in the dry state before imbibition. in the decreasing order of Malus pumila, Daucus carota, Hordeum vulgare, Chenopodium album and so on. β-Gluosidase activity in upper and lower seeds of cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum Wallr.) decreased with imbibition, and in lower seeds the activity disappeared when they germinated. On the contrary, in caryopses of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Sasanishiki) β-glucosidase increased during imbibition, and this increase continued even after germination. β-Glucosidase in cocklebur seeds was more active in the axial than in the cotyledonary tissue. Amygdalin, prunasin and linamarin could all serve as substrattes for the β-glucosidase(s) from both cocklebur and rice. Amygdalin, prunasin and linamarin as well as KCN, were effective in stimulating the germination of upper cocklebur seeds. The seeds evolved much more free HCN gas when they were exposed to the cyanogenic glycosides than when the glycosides were absent. Moreover, the application of the cyanogenic glycosides or of KCN caused accumulation of bound HCN in the seeds. Carbon monoxide, which stimulated cocklebur seed germination only slightly, did not cause accumulation of bound HCN. We suggest that a balance between the cytochrome and the alternative respiration pathways, which is adequate for germination (Esashi et al. 1987. Plant Cell Physiol. 28: 141–150), may be brought about by the action of endogenous HCN; a large portion of which is liberated from cyanogenic glycosides via the action of β-glucosidase. In addition to the partial suppression of the cytochrome path and unlike carbon monoxide, the HCN thus produced may act to supply cyanide group(s) to unknown compounds necessary for germination.     

The presence of two types of β-cyanoalanine synthase in germinating seeds and their responses to ethylene

Germinating seeds of many species contain two types of β-cyanoalanine synthase (CAS, EC 4.4.1.9) that convert HCN to β-cyanoalanine. One is cytoplasmic CAS (cyt-CAS), which is precipitated by 50 to 60% (NH₄)₂SO₄ and has a pH optimum of 10.5. Cytoplasmic CAS is present at high levels in dry seed and its activity does not increase during imbibition. The activity of cyt-CAS is not affected by exogenously applied ethylene (C₂H₄), except in rice ( Oryza sativa cv. Sasanishiki). The second type of CAS found in seed is mitochondrial CAS (mit-CAS), which is precipitated by 60 to 70% (NH₄)₂SO₄ and has a pH optimum of 9.5. Mitochondrial CAS is present at low levels in dry seed, and its activity increases greatly during imbibition in the seeds of all species tested. Exposure to C₂H₄ stimulated mit-CAS activity in seeds of rice, barley ( Hordeum vulgare cv. Hadakamugi). cucumber ( Cucumis sativus cv. Kagafushinari) and cocklebur ( Xanthium pennsylvanicum ). The increase in the mit-CAS activity in cocklebur in response to C₂H₄ commenced alter a lag period of 2 to 3 h when the duration of soaking was short (16 h), but commenced without a lag period when the seeds were soaked for three months. Application of both chloramphenicol and cycloheximide to the axial and cotyledonary tissues of cocklebur seeds strongly inhibited growth as well as the increase in mit-CAS activity. It is postulated that the mit-CAS is synthesized de novo during imbibition and that its activity is regulated by C₂H₄, CO₂ which also promotes seed germination in some species, was ineffective m stimulating mit-CAS activity in cocklebur seeds.     

Translocation of N to and from barley roots: its dependence on local nitrate supply in split-root culture

The relationship between availability of external nitrate and N translocation between root and shoot was studied in N-limited barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Golf). Nitrate-N was added at a relative rate (i.e. N added per unit time and unit N in plant biomass) of (1.09 da-¹, and distributed between the subroots at ratios of 50:50 or 80:20. The plants were grown for 13 days under these conditions of nitrate nutrition, and for another three days with the nitrate distribution reversed from 80:20 to 20:80. The nitrale-N doses thus experienced by individual subroots ranged from 2 to 11 mg N g-¹ root dry weight day-¹ . ¹⁵N-Nitrate labellings were performed after 2 to 3 and 12 to 13 days of nitrate nutrition. and 2 to 3 days after reversal of nitrate additions. For all treatments, between 60 and 82% of the absorbed label initially left the root, and between 25 and 55% of the label recovered in roots had been supplied (cycled) via the shoot. Labelling of xylem N at the end of the 24-h labelling period ranged from to 36 to 46% indicating that a substantial fraction of the N in the xylem had been absorbed by the plant prior to labelling. It is concluded that cycling of N to roots, and cycling of N in the plant as a whole, is substantial also during N-limited growth. N allocation to roots increased with external nitrate dose. An increased utilization of non-translocated N as well as an increased translocation of N from the shoot contributed to this effect. Thus, the results indicate that increased external availability of N also increased the sink strength of the root for cycling N.     

Changes in chloroplast peroxidase activities in relation to chlorophyll loss in barley leaf segments

Total peroxidase activity increased during senescence of excised barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Kashimamugi) leaves. Kinetin treatment furter increased total peroxidase activity but repressed chlorophyll degradation in excised barley leaves. When isoperoxidases were extracted from barley leaf segments. 4 cationic and 4 anionic isozymes were found in polyacrylamide gel electrophorests during leaf senescence. The chloroplasts contained only two cationic isoperoxidase activities. One (designated C4) was repressed by kinetin. and the other (C3) was increased by kinetin. Glucosamine, which also repressed the degradation of chlorophyll, completely repressed C4 activity but did not affect C3 activity. The induction with senescence, and the repression with kinetin and glucosamine, suggest chat chloroplast isoperoxidase C4 may function as a chlorophyll-degrading enzyme during barley leaf senescence.     

Presence of β-cyanoalanine synthase in unimbibed dry seeds and its activation by ethylene during pre-germination

Evolution of HCN from both rice ( Oryza sativa ) and cocklebur ( Xanthium pennsylvanicum ) seeds increased during a pre-germination period and preceded the evolution of (C₂H₄). These two species were adopted as the representatives of starchy and fatty seeds, respectively. Ethylene promotes seed germination of many species. However, HCN evolution declined abruptly when the radicles emerged and before the peak in C₂H₄ evolution. More-over, both rice and soybean ( Glycine max ) seeds showed some activity of β-cyanoalanine synthase (CAS, EC 4.4.1.9) even in the unimbibed dry state. The activities of CAS in the lower seed of cocklebur and in soybean seeds increased rapidly after emergence of the radicle. However, the CAS of rice seeds, with high activity in the dry state, exhibited a bimodal change, gradually decreasing until radicle emergence had occurred, but then increaing. It is thus likly that HCN evolution during initial imbibition may be derived from cyanogenic reserves and controlled by both pre-existing and subsequently-developing CAS. The exogenous application of C₂H₄ stimulated the activities of CAS in both rice and upper cocklebur seeds and reduced their cyanogen contents. Therefore, the decline of HCN evolution after germination seems to be due to the increased activities of CAS by endogenously produced C₂H₄.     

不同镉水平下大麦幼苗生长和镉及养分吸收的品种间差异

利用水培试验研究了不同Cd水平下大麦幼苗的Cd和几种矿质元素吸收、积累、生长和生物学产量的品种间差异 .结果表明 ,1μmol·L-1Cd处理显著降低麦苗株高、绿叶数、叶绿素计读数、地上部和根系干重 ,显著抑制植株对Zn、Mn、Cu的吸收和累积 ;品种之间存在着显著差异 ,无芒六棱受抑制最为严重 ,米麦 114和浙农 1号表现出相对较强的抗性 .麦苗Cd含量和累积量品种之间也有显著差异 ,浙农 1号的Cd含量最高 ,米麦 114最低 .相关分析表明 ,麦苗生物学产量与地上部Cd含量、累积量及根系Cd含量呈显著负相关 ,其中与地上部Cd含量的相关性最强 ,与根系Cd累积量无显著相关 .     

Studies on the patterns of nitrogen uptake and translocation to the grain of winter barley intended for malting

In five experiments carried out between 1987 and 1989, crops of winter barley were grown under a range of agronomic treatments to study the way the treatments influenced the patterns of nitrogen uptake, dry matter production, translocation of assimilates and malting quality. Rate and timing of nitrogen fertiliser had large effects. Increased and late applications invariably increased nitrogen concentration in the grain by affecting the partitioning of nitrogen between the vegetative and reproductive parts of the plant. Foliar fungal diseases also affected nitrogen partitioning, apparently by interfering with the transport of stored nitrogen to the developing grain. Seasonal influences, especially rainfall during the grain filling period, were found to have profound effects on the pattern of change in ear and grain nitrogen concentration, and hence malting quality. The ability to predict final grain nitrogen concentration from measurements made earlier in the season is not therefore likely to be feasible.     

A novel late embryogenesis abundant protein and peroxidase associated with black point in barley grains

Black point of barley grain is a disorder characterised by a brown-black discolouration at the embryo end of the grain. Black point is undesirable to the malting industry and results in significant economic loss annually. To identify proteins associated with barley black point we utilised a proteomic approach with 2-DE to compare proteins from whole grain samples of black pointed and healthy grain. From this comparison two condition-specific proteins were identified: a novel 75 kDa late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein and a barley grain peroxidase 1 (BP1) that were specifically more abundant in healthy grain and black pointed grain, respectively. Although LEA protein was less abundant in black pointed grain, LEA gene expression was greater suggesting protein degradation had possibly occurred in black pointed grain. Similarly, the increase in BP1 in black pointed grain could not be explained by gene expression. Western blot analysis also revealed that the identified LEA protein is biotinylated in vivo. The role that each of these proteins might have in black point development is discussed.     

Histological analysis of somatic embryogenesis in Brazilian cultivars of barley, Hordeum vulgare vulgare, Poaceae

 Histological analysis was performed aimed at elucidating the origin and the developmental process of somatic embryos of two Brazilian cultivars of barley (Hordeum vulgare vulgare), 'MN-599' and 'A-05'. The observed site of somatic embryo origin (SSEO) could originate from a superficial callus cell, possibly indicating a unicellular origin, or from epidermal and subepidermal callus cells, representing a multicellular origin. A fold, the somatic embryo scutellum that subsequently develops into a cotyledonary leaf, indicates the somatic embryo differentiation. The somatic embryos also showed a growth increase of the primary root and, occasionally, a delay in root development. A possible alternative pathway for the origin of somatic embryos is suggested, in which a SSEO forms a clump of somatic embryos. Received: 4 June 1998 / Revision received: 28 August 1998 / Accepted: 7 December 1998     

Protein accumulation potential in barley seeds as affected by soil- and peduncle-applied N and peduncle-applied plant growth regulators

Although much investigated, the factors constraining cereal grain protein accumulation are not well understood. As a result of the development of a new technique, new approaches to this question are now possible. A peduncle perfusion system was used to deliver a range of plant growth regulators (PGRs) and/or N solutions into barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants during the grain-filling period. The perfusion technique floods the peduncle interior with a treatment solution for periods of weeks to months, allowing the plant to take up administered substances from the perfused solution. The objectives of the present work were to determine: (1) whether some PGRs could alter the overall pattern of N allocation within barley plants, perhaps leading to higher protein accumulation in the seeds, (2) whether the addition of N through the peduncle could increase the seed N concentration even when the concentration of N in the rooting medium was high, and (3) whether or not PGR-stimulated elevations in grain protein levels and peduncle-added N increases in grain protein levels were additive. Three experiments were conducted to determine the physiological effects of (1) peduncle-administered PGRs (2) combinations of soil- and peduncle-applied N and (3) selected combinations of soil- and peduncle-administered N, and peduncle-applied PGRs on photosynthetic rate, dry matter partitioning and N accumulation of barley plants during grain filling. The first experiment tested four PGRs: abscisic acid (ABA), kinetin, gibberellic acid (GA₃), and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) each at three concentrations. The second experiment tested three levels of soil N (NH₄NO₃) fertility, and two concentrations of peduncle-added N (urea). The third experiment tested four PGRs: ABA, kinetin, GA₃, and 2,4-D with two soil N concentrations and two concentrations of peduncle-added N. ABA and 2,4-D decreased total seed weight of the perfused spike. The addition of peduncle-perfused N increased seed protein concentration and content under conditions of high soil N fertility, suggesting that seed protein accumulation is more limited by the ability of roots to take up N from the soil than by the seed to take up N from the rest of the plant. The effects of the PGRs on N allocation among plant parts varied with the amount of N available to the plant. Because it resulted in less protein stored in the flag leaf and more in the seeds, GA₃ perfusion caused an overall change in the allocation of N among plant parts. Peduncle perfusion of kinetin and ABA affected some aspects of photosynthetic physiology.     

Mild phosphorus stress in barley and a related low-phosphorus-adapted barleygrass: Phosphorus fractions and phosphate absorption in relation to growth

Barleygrass ( Hordeum leporinum ) from Australian low-P (phosphorus) soils and commercial barley ( H. vulgare ) with high fertilizer requirements were grown in solution culture at 3 levels of P supply. The high-P-adapted barley produced more biomass at all levels of P supply and was more responsive to added P in terms of rate of tillering, rate of leaf production, final leaf size, and therefore total shoot weight compared to barleygrass. In both species root: shoot ratio decreased in response to improved tissue P status, even at P levels where total biomass did not respond to P supply. Removal of endosperm reserves of barley reduced total biomass to a greater extent than it altered phosphate absorption rate, thus increasing tissue P status and making plants less responsive to added P. Similarly, barleygrass had a slower growth rate but a comparable P absorption rate to that of barley. Thus barleygrass also accumulated tissue P and was unresponsive to added P. All phosphorus chemical fractions increased in response to improved tissue P status, but to differing extents (inorganic-P > nucleic acid-P > lipid-P > ester-P), suggesting that all P fractions (particularly inorganic P) serve, in part, a storage function. Both barleygrass and barley without endosperm had higher concentrations of all P fractions (particularly inorganic P) than did unaltered barley, but this was due entirely to their higher P status (due to slow growth) rather than to any major difference in P metabolism between species. We conclude that slow growth is more important than interspecific differences in P metabolism, P absorption, or efficiency of P utilization in explaining the success of barleygrass and other low-P-adapted species on infertile soils.     

Purification and properties of protein Z – a major albumin of barley endosperm

A major albumin of barley grain, called protein Z, has been purified from endosperm flour. Extraction with 0.05 M β-mercaptoethanol and successive use of (NH ₄)₂SO₄-precipitation, anion exchange at pH 7.5, cation exchange at pH 4.5, and anion exchange at pH 8.0 resulted in a highly pure protein as judged from various electrophoretic and immunoelectrophoretic tests. As protein Z is a major protein component of beer, antibodies towards a protein-rich beer fraction could be used to detect the protein during purification. Protein Z consists of at least four antigenically identical molecular forms with isoelectric points in the range 5.55–5.8, but same molecular mass near 40000. Dimer and, probably, tetramer forms were detected by gel filtration in the absence of reducing agents. Monospecific antibodies towards protein Z were prepared. Immunoelectrophoretic properties of the protein were not affected by treatment at pH 1–13 (30 min at 30°C) or up to 100°C (30 min at pH 7). Commonly grown barley varieties contained about 1.5–2.5 mg protein Z/g grain, but a much lower content (∼ 0.2 mg/g grain) was found in a few varieties. Like barley β-amylase, protein Z was present in both salt-extractable "free" (20–30%) and thiol-extractable "latent" (70–80%) forms in the grain. Protein Z contains 2 cysteine and 20 lysine residues per monomer molecule and is relatively rich in leucine and other hydrophobic residues. Protein Z may contribute up to 5% of the total grain lysine in normal varieties and more than 7% in some high-lysine barleys.     

Diurnal variations of nitrite reductase, glutamine synthetase, glutamate synthase, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase in barley leaves

Diurnal variations of in vitro activity of 5 enzymes of nitrogen metabolism were studied. Barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Herta) seedlings were grown in 8 h short days, in daylight or under fluorescent lamps. During, the photoperiod nitrite reductase (EC 1.7.7.1) increased by an average of 18% in daylight and 10% under fluorescent lamps. Glutamine synthetase (EC 6.3.1.2) activity increased by 14 and 10%, respectively. The increase in enzyme activity reflected the overall increase in soluble proteins which was 8% in daylight and 3% under fluorescent lamps. Alanine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.2) increased by 82% in daylight and 37% under fluorescent lamps. Desalting of the extracts did not alter the enzyme activity and thus supported the assumption that changes in extractable enzyme activity are due to changes in the amount of (active) enzyme protein. Glutamate synthase (EC 1.4.7.1) activity did not show regular diurnal variations, and aspartate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.1) activity was almost constant.     

Time-dependent changes in polypeptide and translatable mRNA levels caused by NaCl in barley roots

The effect of salt stress on polypeptide and translatable mRNA levels was examined in roots of barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cv. CM 72). A salt-shock time course (200 m M NaCl added to the nutrient solution of 5-day old seedlings for up to 24 h) and a 6-day salt treatment (seedlings grown in nutrient solution containing 200 m M NaCl for 6 days) were compared. Roots of intact seedlings were labeled in vivo with [³⁵S]-methionine. Poly(A)⁺ RNA was isolated and assayed in an in vitro translation system. The changes in the levels of the labeled polypeptides and translation products were analyzed following separation on two-dimensional polyacrylamide gels. Over the salt-shock time course, the majority of the changes in polypeptides and translation products were quantitative, as were the changes at 6 days. Qualitative changes occurred during the salt-shock time course, but were not observed at 6 days. The levels of polypeptides and translation products differed at each point of the salt-shock time course and at 6 days. In addition, changes were observed at the shortest time points examined, indicating a rapid response to salt.     

Expression of β-galactosidase multiple forms during barley (Hordeum vulgare) seed germination. Separation and characterization of enzyme isoforms

β-Galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23) activity in barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) seedlings increases moderately during the first stages of germination. The level of activity in the whole seedling is the result of increasing activity of β-galactosidase in the roots and shoots and of declining enzyme activity in the grain. β-Galactosidase was purified during different developmental stages and from various parts of the barley seedling using affinity chromatography and was resolved into multiple forms by isoelectric focusing on polyacrylamide gels. The expression of the isoforms was shown to be under temporal and tissue-specific control. Four sets of isozymes were separated by DEAE-cellulose chromatography and were shown to be functionally similar. β-Galactosidase isoforms also exhibit size microheterogeneity, the more acidic entities having higher molecular masses. The differences in molecular weight are mainly restricted to the size of the small subunit. Multiplicity can not be attributed to glycosylation, since treatment of the enzyme preparation with N- or O-glycanase did not alter the isoelectric points or the molecular weights of the isoforms.     

NADH-dependent nitrate reductase from two-row barley roots: Purification, characteristics and comparison with leaf enzyme

NADH-nitrate reductase (EC 1.6.6.1) was purified 800-fold from roots of two-row barley ( Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Daisen-gold) by a combination of Blue Sepharose and zinc-chelate affinity chromatographies followed by gel filtration on TSK-gel (G3000SW). The specific activity of the purified enzyme was 6.2 μmol nitrite produced (mg protein)⁻¹ min⁻¹ at 30°C.
Besides the reduction of nitrate by NADH, the root enzyme, like leaf nitrate reductase, also catalyzed the partial activities NADH-cytochrome c reductase, NADH-ferricyanide reductase, reduced methyl viologen nitrate reductase and FMNH₂-nitrate reductase. Its molecular weight was estimated to be about 200 kDa, which is somewhat smaller than that for the leaf enzyme. A comparison of root and leaf nitrate reductases shows physiologically similar or identical properties with respect to pH optimum, requirements of electron donor, acceptor, and FAD, apparent K_m for nitrate, NADH and FAD, pH tolerance, thermal stability and response to inorganic orthophosphate. Phosphate activated root nitrate reductase at high concentration of nitrate, but was inhibitory at low concentrations, resulting in increases in apparent K_m for nitrate as well as V_max whereas it did not alter the K_m for NADH.