Attitudes of Missouri Small Game Hunters Toward Nontoxic-Shot Regulations

ABSTRACT Wildlife managers are becoming more concerned about the exposure of birds, in addition to waterfowl, to spent lead shot. Knowledge of hunter attitudes and their acceptance of nontoxic-shot regulations will be important in establishing new regulations. Our objective was to assess the attitudes of small game hunters in Missouri, USA, toward a nontoxic-shot regulation for small game hunting, specifically for mourning doves (Zenaida macroura). Most hunters (71.7–84.8%) opposed additional nontoxic-shot regulations. Hunters from rural areas, hunters with a rural background, hunters who hunt doves, hunters who currently hunt waterfowl, hunters who primarily use private lands, and current upland game hunters were more likely to oppose new regulations. For mourning dove hunting, most small game hunters (81.1%) opposed further restrictions; however, many non-dove hunters (57.1%) expressed no opinion. Because our results demonstrate that most small game hunters and dove hunters in Missouri are decidedly against further nontoxic-shot regulations, any informational and educational programs developed to accompany future policy changes must address their concerns.     

Lead exposure in free-flying turkey vultures is associated with big game hunting in California

Predatory and scavenging birds are at risk of lead exposure when they feed on animals injured or killed by lead ammunition. While lead ammunition has been banned from waterfowl hunting in North America for almost two decades, lead ammunition is still widely used for hunting big game and small game animals. In this study, we evaluated the association between big game hunting and blood lead concentration in an avian scavenger species that feeds regularly on large mammals in California. We compared blood lead concentration in turkey vultures within and outside of the deer hunting season, and in areas with varying wild pig hunting intensity. Lead exposure in turkey vultures was significantly higher during the deer hunting season compared to the off-season, and blood lead concentration was positively correlated with increasing wild pig hunting intensity. Our results link lead exposure in turkey vultures to deer and wild pig hunting activity at these study sites, and we provide evidence that spent lead ammunition in carrion poses a significant risk of lead exposure to scavengers.     

Switch to non-toxic shot in the Camargue,France: effect on waterbird contamination and hunter effectiveness

The use of lead shot for wildfowling is a severe threat to waterbirds through ingestion of toxic lead pellets. Consequently, lead shot has been banned in many countries since the late 1990s and on Tour du Valat estate since 1994 (Camargue, France). An experimental study was undertaken to check if hunters would habituate to this new type of cartridge and consequently improve their effectiveness (average number of shots per bagged animal), assess the factors influencing effectiveness, and assess the trend of contamination in shot waterbirds and the estate sediment. From 1995 to 2005, we monitored hunting bags, spent cartridges, and the gizzards of shot ducks. Using generalized mixed effect models, we assessed the factors influencing hunter effectiveness. Instances of non-toxic pellets in duck gizzards increased, probably as a result of rapid accumulation in the sediments. We estimated that between 1995 and 2005, the lead shot ban spared 456 kg of lead from entering 403 ha of temporary marshes and avoided the contamination of 8 % of the ducks foraging on Tour du Valat. After 11 years of hunting with non-toxic shot, there was unexpectedly no clear pattern in trends of individual effectiveness among hunters. Hunter effectiveness was instead positively influenced by game abundance and hunter assiduity and negatively influenced by wind and number of shots, suggesting a lassitude effect. Our results suggest crippling loss can be reduced through regular practice, self-limitation of shooting intensity to below 20 shots to avoid lassitude effects, and self-limitation of shooting distance under strong wind conditions.     

Recreational Shooting of Prairie Dogs: A Portal for Lead Entering Wildlife Food Chains

Abstract: Although lead shot has been banned for waterfowl hunting in North America, some predators continue to exhibit elevated lead burdens, which has been attributed to ingesting metallic lead from other projectiles. Few studies have investigated residual lead fragments in hunted upland animals. Therefore, specific portals for lead entering wildlife food chains remain largely unknown. Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) are shot for recreation with minimal regulation in western North America. Because recreational shooters mostly use expanding bullets and rarely remove or bury carcasses, shot prairie dogs could make lead accessible to predators and scavengers. To determine whether and to what degree shot prairie dogs carry lead fragments, we analyzed carcasses shot by recreational shooters with 2 bullet types. Bullet type influenced the probability of bullet fragments being retained in carcasses; 87% of prairie dogs shot with expanding bullets contained bullet fragments, whereas 7% of carcasses shot with non-expanding bullets did. The amount of bullet fragments per carcass also differed between bullet types; carcasses shot with expanding bullets contained a mean of 228.4 mg of the lead-containing bullet core and 74.4 mg of the copper-alloy jacket, whereas carcasses shot with non-expanding bullets averaged only 19.8 mg of the core and 23.2 mg of the jacket. Lead fragments in carcasses shot with expanding bullets were small in size; 73% of all lead mass in each carcass was from fragments that weighed <25 mg each, small enough to be easily ingested and absorbed by secondary consumers. The amount of lead in a single prairie dog carcass shot with an expanding bullet is potentially sufficient to acutely poison scavengers or predators. Therefore, shot prairie dogs may provide an important portal for lead entering wildlife food chains and may pose risks to raptors and carnivores. Managers should consider measures, such as using non-expanding or lead-free ammunition, to reduce the likelihood of lead consumption and poisoning in upland wildlife.     

Framing messages to support feral dog eradication: Both ecocentric and anthropocentric frames work

Due to their impact on biodiversity, human health, and livestock husbandry, we need to eradicate feral dogs. However, eradication usually encounters public opposition, which hinders its implementation and success. Persuasive messages could help us attain public support for feral dog eradication. We evaluated the effectiveness of two message frames to increase intentions to support eradication of feral dogs via lethal methods. Messages addressed the negative impacts of feral dogs on (1) human health and livestock husbandry (anthropocentric frame) and (2) wildlife (ecocentric frame). These frames were randomly assigned to 506 Chilean citizens and Chilean residents in a before-after survey experiment measuring attitudes, subjective norm, and behavioral intentions to support feral dog eradication via lethal methods. Both frames significantly increased behavioral intentions, attitude, and subjective norm, irrespective of participant demographics. Changes in attitude and subjective norm influenced change in intentions. Both frames can aid managers increase public support to eradicate feral dogs.     

Health effects following chronic dosing with tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot in adult game-farm mallards

Permanent approval of shot composed of tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer for waterfowl hunting by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was pending the results of the present study that examined the health and reproductive effects of the two shot types on mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) over a 150-day period. We collected data pertaining to the effects of tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot on mortality, body weight, organ weight, tissue pathology, and shot erosion. Thirty-two bird groups (sexes equal) of adult mallards were dosed orally with eight #4 steel shot (control), eight #4 tungsten-iron shot, or eight #4 tungsten-polymer shot on days 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 of a 150-day trial (26 January 1998 to 25 June 1998). An additional 12 mallards (sexes equal) were dosed orally with eight #4 lead shot (positive control) on day 0 of the study. All lead-dosed ducks died by day 25, whereas no ducks died in the other treatment groups. Significant liver hemosiderosis was present in all control and tungsten-iron-dosed males, in five of eight control and three of eight tungsten-iron-dosed females, and in one tungsten-polymer-dosed male examined. The rate of shot erosion was highest for tungsten-polymer shot (99%), followed by tungsten-iron (72%), and steel (55%) shot. Tungsten-iron or tungsten-polymer shot repeatedly administered to adult mallards did not have deleterious health effects during the 150-day trial based on mortality, body weights, organ weights, and histology of the liver and kidneys.     

Impact of the California lead ammunition ban on reducing lead exposure in golden eagles and turkey vultures

Predatory and scavenging birds may be exposed to high levels of lead when they ingest shot or bullet fragments embedded in the tissues of animals injured or killed with lead ammunition. Lead poisoning was a contributing factor in the decline of the endangered California condor population in the 1980s, and remains one of the primary factors threatening species recovery. In response to this threat, a ban on the use of lead ammunition for most hunting activities in the range of the condor in California was implemented in 2008. Monitoring of lead exposure in predatory and scavenging birds is essential for assessing the effectiveness of the lead ammunition ban in reducing lead exposure in these species. In this study, we assessed the effectiveness of the regulation in decreasing blood lead concentration in two avian sentinels, golden eagles and turkey vultures, within the condor range in California. We compared blood lead concentration in golden eagles and turkey vultures prior to the lead ammunition ban and one year following implementation of the ban. Lead exposure in both golden eagles and turkey vultures declined significantly post-ban. Our findings provide evidence that hunter compliance with lead ammunition regulations was sufficient to reduce lead exposure in predatory and scavenging birds at our study sites.     

Acute toxicity of lead, steel, and an iron-tungsten-nickel shot to mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)

Twenty mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) of both sexes were dosed by oral gavage with Heavi-Shot (H-S; Environ-Metal, Inc., Sweet Home, Oregon, USA) pellets, 20 with steel shot, and 10 with lead (Pb) pellets, all of equal size. All pellets were fired from a shotgun into an absorbent material, retrieved, and weighed prior to introduction into the ducks. Birds were fed whole kernel corn and grit and observed for signs of toxicity for 30 days following dosing. Hevi-Shot pellets lost an average of 6.2% of their mass and steel shot pellets lost 57% of their mass in the birds' gizzards. Almost all (90%) of the Pb shot dosed birds died before the end of the study, while no mortality was observed in the steel or H-S dosed groups. Even though total food consumption differed between the H-S and steel shot groups, mean bird weight change was not different. There were no significant morphologic or histopathologic abnormalities of the liver and kidney in the H-S and steel shot groups. Results indicated that mallards dosed orally with eight No. 4 H-S pellets were not adversely affected over a 30-day period, and that H-S provides another environmentally safe nontoxic shot for use in waterfowl hunting.     

Management and Conservation Article

Abstract Despite increased knowledge about environmental toxins and changes in lead use (i.e., the mandated use of nonlead paint, gasoline, and shotgun pellets used for hunting waterfowl on federal lands), lead poisoning continues to occur in terrestrial birds. The degree of exposure and its demographic effect, however, continue to be described, emphasizing the growing concern over lead exposure. We examined 302 blood samples from common ravens (Corvus corax) scavenging on hunter-killed large ungulates and their offal piles to determine if lead rifle-bullet residuum was a point source for lead ingestion in ravens. We took blood samples during a 15-month period spanning 2 hunting seasons. Of the ravens tested during the hunting season, 47% exhibited elevated blood lead levels (≥ 10 μg/dL) whereas 2% tested during the nonhunting season exhibited elevated levels. Females had significantly higher blood lead levels than did males. Our results confirm that ravens are ingesting lead during the hunting season and are likely exposed to lead from rifle-shot big-game offal piles.     

Framing Political Messages to Fit the Audience’s Regulatory Orientation: How to Improve the Efficacy of the Same Message Content

This research investigates how the impact of persuasive messages in the political domain can be improved when fit is created by subliminally priming recipients’ regulatory focus (either promotion or prevention) and by linguistic framing of the message (either strategic approach framing or strategic avoidance framing). Results of two studies show that regulatory fit: a) increases the impact of a political message favoring nuclear energy on implicit attitudes of the target audience (Study 1); and b) induces a more positive evaluation of, and intentions to vote for, the political candidate who is delivering a message concerning immigration policies (Study 2).     

Legal protection of wolves in Poland: implications for the status of the wolf population

Legal protection of wolves (Canis lupus) in Poland was implemented in 1998 after 23 years of management as a game species. Wolves occurring in Poland were interconnected with larger populations in the Carpathian Mountains and Belarus, Baltic States and Russia, stable in numbers, and were not considered endangered before the change in legal status affording protection from hunting. Parties calling for wolf protection wanted to stop killing of wolves because of their symbolic nature, but did not have particular management goals to achieve. The government did not accompany the change in legal status by management plan, and therefore, the ban on wolf hunting was weakly enforced. A wolf distribution monitoring demonstrated that wolf range had not expanded 9 years after the hunting ban was implemented, and no increase in wolf numbers was observed. This failure to recover may be explained by: (1) a significant (up to 35%) reduction in the wolves’ prey base 6 years before wolf hunting was stopped, (2) weak enforcement of the protection law, resulting in lack of poaching control of wolves, (3) probable increasing fragmentation and isolation of wolf habitat caused by rapid economic growth in Poland. Inconsistent application of current management policy toward wolves resulted in weak enforcement of regulations and promoted negative attitudes toward the species. To improve the status of wolves in Poland, I recommend a flexible wolf management planning framework that involves and addresses attitudes of hunters and sheep herders, includes a framework to promote strong law enforcement, and consistent, fair compensation for livestock killed by wolves.     

Lead Poisoning: Using Transdisciplinary Approaches to Solve an Ancient Problem

Conservation medicine examines the linkages among the health of people, animals, and the environment. Few issues illustrate this approach better than an examination of lead (Pb) toxicity. Lead is cheap and there is a long tradition of its use. But the toxic effects of Pb have also been recognized for many years. As a result, western societies have eliminated or greatly reduced many traditional uses of Pb, including many paints, gasoline, and solders because of threats to the health of humans and the environment. Legislation in several countries has eliminated the use of lead shot for hunting waterfowl. Despite these advances, a great many Pb products continue to be readily available. For example, wildlife agencies recognize that angling and shooting sports deposit thousands of tons of Pb into the environment each year. In recent years, our knowledge of the lethal and sublethal effects of Pb has grown dramatically. This discussion reviews the effects of lead on wildlife, humans, and domestic animals. It also discusses the importance of bringing together all interest groups to find safe alternatives, to develop new educational and policy initiatives, to eliminate many current uses of Pb, and to clean up existing problems.     

Potential Hazard to Human Health from Exposure to Fragments of Lead Bullets and Shot in the Tissues of Game Animals

Background

Lead is highly toxic to animals. Humans eating game killed using lead ammunition generally avoid swallowing shot or bullets and dietary lead exposure from this source has been considered low. Recent evidence illustrates that lead bullets fragment on impact, leaving small lead particles widely distributed in game tissues. Our paper asks whether lead gunshot pellets also fragment upon impact, and whether lead derived from spent gunshot and bullets in the tissues of game animals could pose a threat to human health.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Wild-shot gamebirds (6 species) obtained in the UK were X-rayed to determine the number of shot and shot fragments present, and cooked using typical methods. Shot were then removed to simulate realistic practice before consumption, and lead concentrations determined. Data from the Veterinary Medicines Directorate Statutory Surveillance Programme documenting lead levels in raw tissues of wild gamebirds and deer, without shot being removed, are also presented. Gamebirds containing ≥5 shot had high tissue lead concentrations, but some with fewer or no shot also had high lead concentrations, confirming X-ray results indicating that small lead fragments remain in the flesh of birds even when the shot exits the body. A high proportion of samples from both surveys had lead concentrations exceeding the European Union Maximum Level of 100 ppb w.w. (0.1 mg kg⁻¹ w.w.) for meat from bovine animals, sheep, pigs and poultry (no level is set for game meat), some by several orders of magnitude. High, but feasible, levels of consumption of some species could result in the current FAO/WHO Provisional Weekly Tolerable Intake of lead being exceeded.

Conclusions/Significance

The potential health hazard from lead ingested in the meat of game animals may be larger than previous risk assessments indicated, especially for vulnerable groups, such as children, and those consuming large amounts of game.     

Lead poisoning in wild populations of Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus in the Camargue and Charente-Maritime, France

Lead poisoning of waterfowl, through the ingestion of spent gunshot, has been recognized as a mortality factor for over a century. However, in Europe relatively little attention has been paid to raptors that may ingest shot embedded in the flesh of prey. The present study examines the incidence of lead poisoning in wild Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus trapped at two sites in France, the Camargue and Charente-Maritime.
Eight captive Marsh Harriers (controls) had blood lead (PbB) concentrations of 5.3–10.8 μg per dl. Of 94 wild birds trapped during the winters of 1990/1991 and 1991/1992 either in baited clap traps or in mist nets at night roosts, 29 (31%) had elevated (>30 μg/dl) PbB concentrations and 13 (14%) had concentrations indicative of clinical poisoning (> 60 μg/dl). Similar percentages of birds caught using the two trapping methods had elevated (>30 μg/dl) PbB concentrations. However, clap netting appeared to select for more heavily contaminated birds and for juvenile birds, although the two are not necessarily correlated. In the Camargue, significantly more females than males trapped in clap nets had elevated PbB concentrations.
The incidence of shot in regurgitated Marsh Harrier pellets increased significantly between October and December, indicating increased exposure to lead as the hunting season progressed. There appeared to be a parallel increase in PbB concentrations throughout the hunting season, although this could not be clearly demonstrated as sex ratios were different during different sampling periods.
Elevated PbB concentrations of harriers in the Camargue are likely to result primarily from the ingestion of shot in the flesh of crippled or unretrieved waterfowl and in Charente-Maritime, from eating crippled or dead mammals.
Other raptors at risk from lead poisoning and solutions to this problem are discussed.     

Lead poisoning in wild waterfowl in Japan

We collected 430 harvested ducks (Anas sp. and Aythya sp.) from nine prefectures in Japan between 1994 and 1997. Fifteen (4%) of 363 birds harvested during and after hunting seasons had one lead pellet each in the proventriculus and gizzard. In addition, 32 (34%) of 93 swans (Cygnus sp.) and two of 14 geese (Anser sp.) found dead from various wetlands had lesions consistent with lead poisoning. One to nine swans suspected of having toxicosis from ingestion of lead shot were found dead each year. Twenty-seven (84%) of the 32 lead-exposured swans were found in Hokkaido Prefecture. We concluded that lead poisoning is still a serious threat to waterfowl in Japan and that there is considerable need for environmental improvement concerning this problem.     

Incidence of ingested lead gunshot in wild grey partridges (Perdix perdix) from the UK

From 1947 to 1992, successive pathologists at The Game Conservancy Trust carried out 1,318 post-mortems on adult wild grey partridges found dead in the UK. During a study of chick food from 1968 to 1978 on the Sussex Downs, the gizzards of 29 wild chicks aged up to 6 weeks were also examined. This paper reports the incidence of lead gunshot ingestion in these two groups of birds. On the assumption that there is no temporal bias, the incidence of lead poisoning increased from 1947–1958 to 1963–1992. During 1963–1992, the incidence of lead gunshot ingestion was 4.5±1.0% in adults and 6.9±4.7% in chicks. The weights of individual lead shot in the chick gizzards showed a rapid rate of erosion, indicating a short retention time in the gizzard, as also reported for adult waterfowl and game birds. The incidence rates in grey partridge and waterfowl found dead can therefore be compared. From 1963 to 1992, the overall incidence of ingested lead gunshot in the grey partridge in the UK was 52% of that of waterfowl (Anatidae excluding mute swan), significantly lower.     

Reproductive effects and duckling survivability following chronic dosing with tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot in adult game-farm mallards

Tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot were given conditional approval for waterfowl hunting by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service based partly on the results of a 30-day acute toxicity trial utilizing mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). Final approval of the two tungsten-containing shot was contingent on the results of a 150-day study that assessed the health and reproductive effects of tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot in adult mallards. Reproductive data are presented in this paper. Sixteen male and 16 female adult mallards were dosed orally with eight #4 steel shot (control), eight #4 tungsten-iron shot, or eight #4 tungsten-polymer shot on days 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 of a 150-day trial (26 January 1998 to 25 June 1998). Reproductive performance was assessed during the last 90 days (day 61 to day 150) of the trial. There were no significant differences in egg production and fertility and hatchability of eggs from tungsten-iron- and tungsten-polymer-dosed ducks compared to control ducks. There was no evidence of differences in percent survivability and body weight of ducklings from tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer mallards compared to ducklings from control ducks. Tungsten-iron or tungsten-polymer shot repeatedly administered to adult mallards during the 150 day trial did not adversely affect reproduction or their offspring.     

Hematological effects and metal residue concentrations following chronic dosing with tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot in adult game-farm mallards

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service required a chronic dosing study that assessed the health and reproductive effects of tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot in adult game-farm mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) prior to granting permanent approval of the shot for waterfowl hunting. Herein, we present the effects of tungsten-iron and tungsten-polymer shot on various hematologic parameters and metal residue concentrations in the femur, liver, kidneys, and gonads. Thirty-two-bird groups (sexes equal) of adult mallards were dosed orally with eight #4 steel shot (control), eight #4 tungsten-iron shot, or eight #4 tungsten-polymer shot on days 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 of a 150 day trial (26 January 1998 to 25 June 1998). An additional 12 mallards (sexes equal) received eight #4 lead shot (positive control) on day 0 of the study. Lead-dosed mallards had significantly decreased hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, and whole-blood delta aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity on day 7, as well as significant changes in a number of plasma chemistry parameters compared to ducks in the control, tungsten-iron, or tungsten-polymer groups. Mallards dosed with tungsten-iron or tungsten-polymer shot had occasional significant differences in hematocrit and plasma chemistry values when compared to control mallards over the 150 day period, but these changes were not considered to be indicative of deleterious effects. Low concentrations of tungsten were detected in gonad and kidney samples from males and females and in liver samples from females dosed with tungsten-polymer shot. Tungsten was also detected in femur samples from tungsten-polymer-dosed mallards. Higher concentrations of tungsten were detected in femur, liver, kidney, and gonad samples from tungsten-iron-dosed ducks. Tungsten-iron or tungsten-polymer shot repeatedly administered to adult mallards did not cause adverse hematological effects during the 150 day trial. Concentrations of tungsten in the femur, liver, kidneys, and gonads were generally higher in tungsten-iron-dosed ducks when compared to tungsten-polymer-dosed ducks.     

Spatial and temporal variation in lead levels related to body condition in the Mississippi Valley population of Canada geese

Concern over lead poisoning led to progressive prohibition of toxic shot to harvest waterfowl in the 1980's. Nevertheless, waterfowl remain susceptible to ingestion of lead shot because illegal use continues and spent shot persists in soil and wetland substrates. While mortality due to lead toxicosis has subsided, sublethal effects may still affect survival and reproduction. We measured liver lead levels and body condition in 732 Canada geese (Branta canadensis interior) during July 1984 to April 1989 in southern Illinois (USA), east-central Wisconsin (USA), and northern Ontario (Canada). Although we sampled only individuals that were visibly healthy, 55 of 732 (7.5%) geese had elevated liver lead levels (> 2 ppm). Lead levels of 46 (6.3%) geese indicated subclinical poisoning (2-6 ppm) and 9 (1.2%) geese had lead levels indicative of clinical poisoning (> 6 ppm). A greater proportion of juveniles (14.3%) had elevated lead levels than did adults (6.0%), but there was no difference between genders. Lead levels were highest in autumn and winter in southern Illinois, but were low during nesting and summer, despite legal use of lead shot in northern Ontario during our study. Lead poisoning (> or = 5% of the population) was still evident during all seasons in juveniles, and during autumn and winter in adults, 5 to 10 yr after toxic shot was banned from areas where we collected geese during migration and winter. Elevated lead levels did not affect total body mass, lipid reserves, or mineral levels of geese we collected. Protein levels also were unaffected below 10 ppm, but there was evidence of decline at higher concentrations. Thus, it seems unlikely that lead exposure currently affects survival or reproduction of Mississippi Valley Population (MVP) geese via body condition, although other sublethal effects cannot be discounted.     

Lead shot ingestion by mourning doves on a disked field

Previous field studies of hunter-harvested mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) have reported the percentage of birds with ingested lead shot as 0.2–6.5%. To reduce the uncertainty concerning the number of doves that ingest shot, we conducted an experiment to test the proportion of mourning doves that ingested lead shot on the bare soil of a disked field (typical of a managed dove field) to simulate more natural feeding conditions. In each of 3 treatment groups of 80 birds, we exposed 35 birds to low-density lead shot (1.5 million shot/ha), and35 birds to high-density lead shot (29.5 million shot/ha), and 10 birds served as controls (no shot). We dosed 5 positive control birds with 2 lead shot each in trials 2 and 3. We scattered lead shot and mixed seed on the loosely packed soil of treatment cages and after 4 days of exposure, 2.9% of doves voluntarily ingested ≥1 lead shot. The proportion of birds that ingested shot when exposed to the high-density shot treatment (4.9%) was not different (P = 0.098) from that of the low-density shot treatment (1.0%). Lead concentrations in liver, kidneys, and blood reached maxima of 94.402 ppm, 346.033 ppm, and 13.883 ppm wet mass, respectively. Differences in delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) activity, packed cell volume, and heterophil:lymphocyte ratio (H:L) were greater posttreatment in doves that had ingested shot than in those that did not. The risk posed to mourning doves from lead shot ingestion can be reduced by banning lead shot on management areas or dove fields or disking fields after hunting season to reduce shot availability. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.