Butterflies as an indicator group of riparian ecosystem assessment

Riparian ecosystems play an important role in modulating a range of ecosystem processes that affect aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Butterflies are a major herbivore in terrestrial ecosystems and are also common in riparian ecosystems. Since butterflies use plants for larval food and adult nectar sources in riparian ecosystems, butterfly diversity can be utilized to evaluate riparian ecosystems. We compiled butterfly data from 33 sites in three riparian ecosystem types across the country and compared butterfly diversity in terms of number of species and quality index in relation to riparian environmental variables. Number of butterfly and plant species was not different among three riparian habitat types. Additionally, there was no significant ecological variable to distinguish the butterfly communities on three riparian habitats. Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling ordination showed that butterfly communities in three riparian ecosystem types differed from each other, and butterfly riparian quality index was the main variable for butterfly assemblages. Five indicator species for moor and another five species for riverine riparian ecosystems were identified. Three and one indicator species for moor and riparian ecosystems, respectively, were plant specialists, while 44 butterflies were general feeders, feeding on a wide range of hostplants in several habitats. These results suggest that butterfly species use actively riparian habitats for nectar and larval food, and the butterfly riparian quality index can be employed to track faunal change in riparian habitats, which are frequently threatened by disturbances such as water level and climate changes, and invasive species.     

Climate change, biotic interactions and ecosystem services

Climate change is real. The wrangling debates are over, and we now need to move onto a predictive ecology that will allow managers of landscapes and policy makers to adapt to the likely changes in biodiversity over the coming decades. There is ample evidence that ecological responses are already occurring at the individual species (population) level. The challenge is how to synthesize the growing list of such observations with a coherent body of theory that will enable us to predict where and when changes will occur, what the consequences might be for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and what we might do practically in order to maintain those systems in as good condition as possible. It is thus necessary to investigate the effects of climate change at the ecosystem level and to consider novel emergent ecosystems composed of new species assemblages arising from differential rates of range shifts of species. Here, we present current knowledge on the effects of climate change on biotic interactions and ecosystem services supply, and summarize the papers included in this volume. We discuss how resilient ecosystems are in the face of the multiple components that characterize climate change, and suggest which current ecological theories may be used as a starting point to predict ecosystem-level effects of climate change.     

Habitat structure mediates biodiversity effects on ecosystem properties

Much of what we know about the role of biodiversity in mediating ecosystem processes and function stems from manipulative experiments, which have largely been performed in isolated, homogeneous environments that do not incorporate habitat structure or allow natural community dynamics to develop. Here, we use a range of habitat configurations in a model marine benthic system to investigate the effects of species composition, resource heterogeneity and patch connectivity on ecosystem properties at both the patch (bioturbation intensity) and multi-patch (nutrient concentration) scale. We show that allowing fauna to move and preferentially select patches alters local species composition and density distributions, which has negative effects on ecosystem processes (bioturbation intensity) at the patch scale, but overall positive effects on ecosystem functioning (nutrient concentration) at the multi-patch scale. Our findings provide important evidence that community dynamics alter in response to localized resource heterogeneity and that these small-scale variations in habitat structure influence species contributions to ecosystem properties at larger scales. We conclude that habitat complexity forms an important buffer against disturbance and that contemporary estimates of the level of biodiversity required for maintaining future multi-functional systems may need to be revised.     

Mangrove Fish Production is Largely Fuelled by External Food Sources: A Stable Isotope Analysis of Fishes at the Individual, Species, and Community Levels from Across the Globe

Coastal ecosystems are energetically connected through passive transport of nutrients but also by migrations of motile organisms. Mangroves are highly productive tropical ecosystems that replenish offshore populations of many species, but we know little about the degree to which this production is fuelled by prey from mangroves, especially in the cases in which mangroves are only accessible at high tide. Different results have been obtained on the importance of mangroves as feeding habitats, confounded by differences in species composition, seascape configuration, and methodology. In the present study, we took a more holistic approach by exploring reliance by fishes on mangroves as a feeding habitat at multiple ecological levels: from individuals to species to communities in mangrove ecosystems from across the globe, using a stable isotope approach. A two end-member mixing model showed a wide range (12–72%) in degree of reliance on mangrove food sources by fishes from different studies across the globe. However, analyzed at the levels of individual fish and species, reliance was low (for example, <25% for 55% of the species worldwide, or <50% for 85% of species, respectively) even though they were collected from sites that differed in geographical location, tidal regime, seascape structure, and species composition. The high fisheries productivity of mangroves appears to be energetically supported largely by food sources from adjacent habitats. In light of the ongoing rapid demise and fragmentation of mangrove and adjacent ecosystems, loss of ecosystem connectivity is likely to affect the productivity and functioning of tropical coastal ecosystems and the services they provide.     

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GLOBAL SEAWEED COMMUNITIES

Seaweeds are ecologically important primary producers, competitors, and ecosystem engineers that play a central role in coastal habitats ranging from kelp forests to coral reefs. Although seaweeds are known to be vulnerable to physical and chemical changes in the marine environment, the impacts of ongoing and future anthropogenic climate change in seaweed‐dominated ecosystems remain poorly understood. In this review, we describe the ways in which changes in the environment directly affect seaweeds in terms of their physiology, growth, reproduction, and survival. We consider the extent to which seaweed species may be able to respond to these changes via adaptation or migration. We also examine the extensive reshuffling of communities that is occurring as the ecological balance between competing species changes, and as top‐down control by herbivores becomes stronger or weaker. Finally, we delve into some of the ecosystem‐level responses to these changes, including changes in primary productivity, diversity, and resilience. Although there are several key areas in which ecological insight is lacking, we suggest that reasonable climate‐related hypotheses can be developed and tested based on current information. By strategically prioritizing research in the areas of complex environmental variation, multiple stressor effects, evolutionary adaptation, and population, community, and ecosystem‐level responses, we can rapidly build upon our current understanding of seaweed biology and climate change ecology to more effectively conserve and manage coastal ecosystems.     

近40年东北地区陆栖脊椎动物种群数量及其生境变化评估

生物多样性是生态平衡维持和生态过程与功能实现的基础,东北地区是我国乃至全球生物多样性最为丰富的地区之一。为研究和探讨东北地区陆栖脊椎动物种群数量与生境变化之间的关系,利用物种调查数据和生境遥感观测数据,以地球生命力指数、生态系统面积和破碎度等指示性指标,综合评估了近40年东北地区陆栖脊椎动物种群数量及其生境变化。结果表明:1970—2010年,东北地区陆栖脊椎动物种群数量下降了近70.1%,森林脊椎动物种群数量减少了近80.9%,草原和荒漠生态系统脊椎动物种群数量增加了近180.9%。1980—2010年,湿地物种种群数量减少了近75.7%。1980—2015年期间,农业和城镇建设用地增幅分别达到25.2%和32.3%,不断挤占和蚕食着自然生态空间,致使自然生境面积不断减少,减幅约为8.0%。自然生境景观破碎化程度总体呈现加重趋势,尤其是森林生境,破碎化指数增加约42.7%。但是,2005年之后,自然生境景观破碎化程度加重趋势趋缓,与2005年之后脊椎动物种群数量减少幅度减缓趋势一致。森林砍伐、人口增长、城镇化、交通建设等造成的自然生态系统破碎度增加和栖息地质量下降对大型兽类影响比较显著。     

Frugivorous Bats Maintain Functional Habitat Connectivity in Agricultural Landscapes but Rely Strongly on Natural Forest Fragments

Anthropogenic changes in land use threaten biodiversity and ecosystem functioning by the conversion of natural habitat into agricultural mosaic landscapes, often with drastic consequences for the associated fauna. The first step in the development of efficient conservation plans is to understand movement of animals through complex habitat mosaics. Therefore, we studied ranging behavior and habitat use in Dermanura watsoni (Phyllostomidae), a frugivorous bat species that is a valuable seed disperser in degraded ecosystems. Radio-tracking of sixteen bats showed that the animals strongly rely on natural forest. Day roosts were exclusively located within mature forest fragments. Selection ratios showed that the bats foraged selectively within the available habitat and positively selected natural forest. However, larger daily ranges were associated with higher use of degraded habitats. Home range geometry and composition of focal foraging areas indicated that wider ranging bats performed directional foraging bouts from natural to degraded forest sites traversing the matrix over distances of up to three hundred meters. This behavior demonstrates the potential of frugivorous bats to functionally connect fragmented areas by providing ecosystem services between natural and degraded sites, and highlights the need for conservation of natural habitat patches within agricultural landscapes that meet the roosting requirements of bats.     

Contemplating the future: Acting now on long‐term monitoring to answer 2050's questions

In 2050, which aspects of ecosystem change will we regret not having measured? Long‐term monitoring plays a crucial part in managing Australia's natural environment because time is a key factor underpinning changes in ecosystems. It is critical to start measuring key attributes of ecosystems – and the human and natural process affecting them – now, so that we can track the trajectory of change over time. This will facilitate informed choices about how to manage ecological changes (including interventions where they are required) and promote better understanding by 2050 of how particular ecosystems have been shaped over time. There will be considerable value in building on existing long‐term monitoring programmes because this can add significantly to the temporal depth of information. The economic and social processes driving change in ecosystems are not identical in all ecosystems, so much of what is monitored (and the means by which it is monitored) will most likely target specific ecosystems or groups of ecosystems. To best understand the effects of ecosystem‐specific threats and drivers, monitoring also will need to address the economic and social factors underpinning ecosystem‐specific change. Therefore, robust assessments of the state of Australia's environment will be best achieved by reporting on the ecological performance of a representative sample of ecosystems over time. Political, policy and financial support to implement appropriate ecosystem‐specific monitoring is a perennial problem. We suggest that the value of ecological monitoring will be demonstrable, when plot‐based monitoring data make a unique and crucial contribution to Australia's ability to produce environmental accounts, environmental reports (e.g. the State of the Environment, State of the Forests) and to fulfilling reporting obligations under international agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity. This paper suggests what must be done to meet Australia's ecological information needs by 2050.     

黄淮平原农业景观不同生境鸟类多样性特征及年际动态

鸟类是地球生物多样性中的重要组成部分,在生态系统功能和服务中发挥着重要作用,是生态环境变化的重要指示物种。农业景观中的食虫鸟类提供了重要的虫害控制服务。当前,农业景观中鸟类多样性丧失加剧,为探讨鸟类多样性在各生境以及年际间的变化,以黄淮平原为研究区,在河流、湖泊、农田、村庄等生境中共设置20个样点。于2016-2019年连续4年在繁殖期采用样线法对鸟类进行多样性调查。调查结果显示：（1）共发现22922只个体,分属14目,38科,53属。从区系分布来看,各生境各年间均以广布种为主;从生态类群来看,鸣禽占绝对优势;从居留型来看,留鸟所占比例最高。（2）在食性组成上,从物种丰富度看,食虫鸟类有57种,约占总物种数的77%;从个体数来看,杂食性鸟类占比超52%。（3）物种丰富度、多样性和均匀度指数最高值均出现在湖泊或河流生境中。（4）鸟类群落相似性分析显示,各生境间鸟类群落均为中等相似程度;鸟类物种丰富度波动幅度在农田和村庄中呈逐年上升趋势。（5）物种多样性加性拆分分析显示,在生境尺度上,局地的α多样性是生物多样性的最重要组成,而从整个研究区来看,生境间的差异则更为重要。造成鸟类多样性时空差异的原因复杂多样,而生境异质性的增加和水域的存在对提高鸟类多样性是具有积极作用的。调查中超过77%的物种和40%的个体均为食虫鸟类,应当充分重视鸟类为区域农业景观提供的虫害控制服务。本研究可为区域鸟类多样性保护及鸟类提供的生态系统服务的提升管理提供理论基础和科学依据。     

Mound-building behaviour of a keystone bioturbator alters rates of leaf litter decomposition and movement in urban reserves

Bioturbation, the disturbance of soil and litter by digging animals plays an important role for a variety of species and ecological processes in many ecosystems. The majority of studies globally on the ecosystem engineering effects of digging vertebrates have focussed on mammals, with birds, reptiles and amphibians remaining comparatively understudied. The loss of ecosystem engineers is a key conservation challenge, and the return of these species is increasingly seen as a priority for habitat restoration; yet this concept is highly novel when we consider urban ecosystems. The Australian brush-turkey (Alectura lathami), historically a rainforest bird and now common in urban ecosystems, displaces significant quantities of soil and leaf litter through its foraging and nest-building behaviour and has previously been described as an ecosystem engineer. Here, we tested the effect of brush-turkey nest building on the decomposition rate of leaf litter, an important ecosystem process. We placed mesh bags of dried Angophora costata and Lantana camara leaves at increasing distances from brush-turkey incubation mounds. We predicted that leaf litter closer to the nest would break down faster during the brush-turkey breeding season due to increased turnover associated with nest mound maintenance. We found slower leaf litter decomposition in the breeding than the non-breeding season, but a relatively greater rate of decomposition closer to the mound in the breeding season. Our results show a seasonal difference in the spatial pattern of leaf litter decomposition and movement; we interpret that brush-turkey mound-building behaviour was the key driver. The ecosystem services provided by brush-turkeys are of particular interest for future research as this species is naturally recolonizing areas where it has been absent for decades, including urban areas. The effect of this species on ecosystem processes including nutrient cycling, seedbank stimulation and reduced fuel loads warrants further investigation.     

城市湖泊退化过程中水生态系统服务功能价值演变评估——以肇庆仙女湖为例

运用市场价值法、碳税法、造林成本法和工业制氧影子价格法、影子工程法以及价格替代等方法,以肇庆仙女湖为例,对城市湖泊水生态系统自然资产价值部分的演变进行了评估。结果得出,仙女湖水生态系统退化过程中,导致水生态系统有些服务功能的大幅度降低,如大气调节功能价值由1999年的460124元降低到2004年的8元、水质净化功能价值由1999年的11480元降到2004年的904元等;但并非各项生态系统服务功能价值都降低,有些项目的生态系统服务功能可保持不变,如水资源调节功能价值;甚至升高,如物质生产价值由1999年的152400元增加到2004年的241200元。该研究给退化生态系统的修复带来很大启示,即在退化生态系统的修复过程中要针对性的就退化生态系统的结构和功能进行修复,提高生态系统的总体服务功能价值,而并非退化生态系统的各项服务均需提高,有些项目的生态系统服务价值可以保持不变,甚至降低。     

Comparison of pollinators and natural enemies: a meta‐analysis of landscape and local effects on abundance and richness in crops

To manage agroecosystems for multiple ecosystem services, we need to know whether the management of one service has positive, negative, or no effects on other services. We do not yet have data on the interactions between pollination and pest‐control services. However, we do have data on the distributions of pollinators and natural enemies in agroecosystems. Therefore, we compared these two groups of ecosystem service providers, to see if the management of farms and agricultural landscapes might have similar effects on the abundance and richness of both. In a meta‐analysis, we compared 46 studies that sampled bees, predatory beetles, parasitic wasps, and spiders in fields, orchards, or vineyards of food crops. These studies used the proximity or proportion of non‐crop or natural habitats in the landscapes surrounding these crops (a measure of landscape complexity), or the proximity or diversity of non‐crop plants in the margins of these crops (a measure of local complexity), to explain the abundance or richness of these beneficial arthropods. Compositional complexity at both landscape and local scales had positive effects on both pollinators and natural enemies, but different effects on different taxa. Effects on bees and spiders were significantly positive, but effects on parasitoids and predatory beetles (mostly Carabidae and Staphylinidae) were inconclusive. Landscape complexity had significantly stronger effects on bees than it did on predatory beetles and significantly stronger effects in non‐woody rather than in woody crops. Effects on richness were significantly stronger than effects on abundance, but possibly only for spiders. This abundance‐richness difference might be caused by differences between generalists and specialists, or between arthropods that depend on non‐crop habitats (ecotone species and dispersers) and those that do not (cultural species). We call this the ‘specialist‐generalist’ or ‘cultural difference’ mechanism. If complexity has stronger effects on richness than abundance, it might have stronger effects on the stability than the magnitude of these arthropod‐mediated ecosystem services. We conclude that some pollinators and natural enemies seem to have compatible responses to complexity, and it might be possible to manage agroecosystems for the benefit of both. However, too few studies have compared the two, and so we cannot yet conclude that there are no negative interactions between pollinators and natural enemies, and no trade‐offs between pollination and pest‐control services. Therefore, we suggest a framework for future research to bridge these gaps in our knowledge.     

生态系统服务制图研究进展

生态系统服务是生态学研究的前沿方向之一,生态系统服务制图是将生态系统服务的评估结果纳入到生态环境保护规划与管理决策制定与实施过程中的重要组成部分。生态系统服务制图是根据决策需求,选择合适的制图评价方法,对特定时空尺度上生态系统服务的空间分布以及在各种自然-社会因素共同影响下生态系统服务的情景变化进行量化描述的过程。它最终为决策参与者提供研究区域生态系统服务时空变化特征具体的、可视的量化描述,辅助决策者权衡利弊,最终制定出符合区域生态环境与人类社会共同可持续发展的最优决策。综述了生态系统服务制图的内涵及其在辅助决策过程中的重要作用;介绍了生态系统服务的重点研究内容(生态系统服务的提供、需求及权衡协同关系制图)及研究方法;并对目前研究中所存在的问题进行了深入的探讨,归纳了生态系统服务的制图评价流程及未来重点的研究方向。     

Seed‐dispersal networks respond differently to resource effects in open and forest habitats

While patterns in species diversity have been well studied across large‐scale environmental gradients, little is known about how species’ interaction networks change in response to abiotic and biotic factors across such gradients. Here we studied seed‐dispersal networks on 50 study plots distributed over ten different habitat types on the southern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, to disentangle the effects of climate, habitat structure, fruit diversity and fruit availability on different measures of interaction diversity. We used direct observations to record the interactions of frugivorous birds and mammals with fleshy‐fruited plants and recorded climatic conditions, habitat structure, fruit diversity and availability. We found that Shannon interaction diversity (H) increased with fruit diversity and availability, whereas interaction evenness (E_H) and network specialization (H₂) responded differently to changes in fruit availability depending on habitat structure. The direction of the effects of fruit availability on E_H and H₂ differed between open habitats at the mountain base and structurally complex habitats in the forest belt. Our findings illustrate that interaction networks react differently to changes in environmental conditions in different ecosystems. Hence, our findings demonstrate that future projections of network structure and associated ecosystem functions need to account for habitat differences among ecosystems.     

河流生态系统健康研究现状与展望——基于文献计量研究

河流生态系统健康是生态系统服务供给和流域可持续发展的基础,亟需从其内涵、影响、评价等方面进行系统归纳。运用文献计量梳理国内外文献,归纳了河流生态系统健康在河流自身、人类需求、管理目标3个方面的内涵;并从人类活动、土地利用、河流生境、水质、水量、气候变化等几个方面归纳了影响河流生态系统健康的主要因素和机理;明确了现有的河流生态系统健康评价方法,包括指示生物法、综合指标法、数学模型法等,总结了它们的优缺点和适用范围。最后,从河流生态系统健康的概念内涵、评价指标和水陆耦合等方面提出了存在的问题,建议进行流域整体的河流生态系统健康评价、跨区域的综合评价对比、多学科评价指标、河流廊道等几个方面的深入研究。     

Forest edges have high conservation value for bird communities in mosaic landscapes

A major conservation challenge in mosaic landscapes is to understand how trait‐specific responses to habitat edges affect bird communities, including potential cascading effects on bird functions providing ecosystem services to forests, such as pest control. Here, we examined how bird species richness, abundance and community composition varied from interior forest habitats and their edges into adjacent open habitats, within a multi‐regional sampling scheme. We further analyzed variations in Conservation Value Index (CVI), Community Specialization Index (CSI) and functional traits across the forest‐edge‐open habitat gradient. Bird species richness, total abundance and CVI were significantly higher at forest edges while CSI peaked at interior open habitats, i.e., furthest from forest edge. In addition, there were important variations in trait‐ and species‐specific responses to forest edges among bird communities. Positive responses to forest edges were found for several forest bird species with unfavorable conservation status. These species were in general insectivores, understorey gleaners, cavity nesters and long‐distance migrants, all traits that displayed higher abundance at forest edges than in forest interiors or adjacent open habitats. Furthermore, consistently with predictions, negative edge effects were recorded in some forest specialist birds and in most open‐habitat birds, showing increasing densities from edges to interior habitats. We thus suggest that increasing landscape‐scale habitat complexity would be beneficial to declining species living in mosaic landscapes combining small woodlands and open habitats. Edge effects between forests and adjacent open habitats may also favor bird functional guilds providing valuable ecosystem services to forests in longstanding fragmented landscapes.     

Characterizing ecosystem-level consequences of biological invasions: the role of ecosystem engineers

Invasions by exotic species represent both threats to ecosystems as well as opportunities to learn more about them. Among the invaders that will have the largest impacts are those that directly modify ecosystems and thus have cascading effects for resident biota. Exotics can affect ecosystems by altering system-level flows, availability, or quality of nutrients, food, and physical resources (e.g. living space, water, heat or light). The invader-mediated control of physical resources, typically achieved through the modification of habitats, has received limited attention in invasion biology. This reflects a general trend in ecology, and only recently has the concept of ecosystem engineering been developed to account for the role of species that shape habitats. Plants and animals in terrestrial and aquatic systems can both create and destroy structure. When introduced into ecosystems, these exotic engineers cause physical state changes with effects that ramify throughout the system. Although the consequences of these modifications are varied and complex, insight gained from general ecological principles offers an opportunity to predict what invaders will do upon their integration into systems. Examples from the literature suggest that introduced ecosystem engineers that increase habitat complexity or heterogeneity tend to cause abundances and/or species richness to rise, while those that decrease complexity tend to have the reverse effect. In assessing such patterns, however, it is critical to also consider spatial scales and the life habits of resident organisms. In addition to providing predictive power, recognition of engineering as a major means by which invasive species affect ecosystems provides a unifying theme for invasion biology and offers a chance to consider more fully the general role of species in ecosystems.     

不同生态恢复方式下生态系统服务与生物多样性恢复效果的整合分析

全球范围内关键生态系统服务的减少使人类社会面临巨大的威胁,生物多样性是生态系统提供各种产品和服务的基础。生态恢复工程对退化的生态系统服务和生物多样性进行修复,对于缓解人类环境压力具有非常重要的意义。长期的理论和实践工作形成了多种生态恢复措施:(1)单纯基于生态系统自我设计的自然恢复方式,(2)人为设计对环境条件进行干预,反馈影响生态系统的自我设计,(3)人为设计对目标种群和生态系统进行直接干预和重建。这3类恢复方式可以在不同程度上定向的影响生态系统的恢复进程,反映了人类对生态系统的低度、中度和高度介入。哪种恢复方式和介入程度能够实现更好的恢复效果,是生态恢复学中的一个关键问题,但到目前为止,虽广有争议,却无定量的分析和结论。针对这个空白,通过对ISI Web of Knowledge数据库中生态恢复相关文献的整合分析,基于数学统计的方法定量比较在不同条件下低度介入(自然恢复)、中度介入(环境干预)和高度介入(直接干预)3种恢复方式对生态系统服务与生物多样性的恢复效果。论文从4个方面展开研究:(1)低度、中度、高度介入生态恢复方式的划分,(2)比较3大类介入方式对生态系统服务和生物多样性恢复效果的差异,(3)不同气候条件、生态系统类型和恢复时间等背景因素的影响,(4)生物多样性恢复和生态系统服务恢复之间的关系。研究结果揭示了不同生态恢复方式的适用条件,以及对生物多样性和生态系统恢复相互关系的作用,对生态恢复实践中恢复方式的选择有指导作用。对未来的研究也有启示意义,如针对特定生态系统服务或具体研究问题进一步探索低度、中度和高度介入生态恢复方式的作用规律和机制;将地区的社会经济水平、生态系统的受损程度等因素纳入生态恢复方式的考察,以最优化生态恢复成本-效率等。     

面向生态系统服务的森林生态系统经营:现状、挑战与展望

森林生态系统是地球陆地生态系统的主体,它具有很高的生物生产力和生物量以及丰富的生物多样性,对全球生态系统和人类经济社会发展起着至关重要和无可替代的作用。伴随着人口的不断增长和经济社会的迅猛发展,对森林资源和森林生态系统服务的需求不断高涨,而且人类对森林资源价值的认识也发生了很大程度的改变。推进森林资源可持续经营,增加森林总量、提高森林质量、增强生态功能,已成为中国林业可持续发展乃至推进中国生态文明建设和建设美丽中国的战略任务。本文全面综述了森林生态系统经营发展历程,分析了森林生态系统经营的现状和存在问题,在此基础上,提出整合基于生态系统管理与满足现代人类福祉对森林多重需求的新的森林生态系统经营理念,面向生态系统服务的森林生态系统经营理念是未来的发展趋势。森林经营发展战略表现为:1)从单纯的森林面积数量扩张,转变到提高单位面积的森林生产力和森林质量;2)从单一追求木材生产逐步转变为多目标经营,将森林林产品单一的经营目标转变为广泛的生态、经济和社会等多目标经营;3)森林经营重点从林分水平转变为森林景观的经营,强调森林景观的时空异质性和动态变化,权衡和协同多种生态系统的服务功能,倡导森林景观的多样性和连通性,提高森林与其它土地利用模式镶嵌构成的复合景观的可持续性和稳定性,增强森林生态系统对气候变化影响的适应能力;4)森林生态系统经营将从依赖传统经验的主观决策转变为信息化、数字化和智能化的决策,发展森林生态系统经营决策支持系统和森林景观恢复与空间经营规划系统。     

The Value of Animal Behavior in Evaluations of Restoration Success

Animals are key members of ecosystems, contributing to processes like pollination, seed dispersal, and herbivory. Incorporating measures of animal behavior into evaluations of restoration success will provide critical information that is not available from animal species composition and richness estimates derived from the documentation of species presence and absence. Behavioral studies will (1) allow comparisons of the habitat quality of target and reference sites based on behaviors that have fitness consequences for organisms; (2) provide valuable information about reasons for differences in habitat quality; (3) identify critical resources that make a site suitable or not for particular species; and/or (4) provide information on the mechanisms through which species contribute to ecosystem functions. When resources for the evaluation of restoration success are available, practitioners should carefully consider the costs and benefits of the different variables they could quantify. In some cases, it may be more important to compare the behavior of one or a few critical animal species that contribute to ecosystem function rather than try to document the presence or absence of all species.