Exploring the population dynamics of waterfowl hunters using a mark-recapture approach

The number of waterfowl hunters in the United States has declined since the 1980s despite relatively abundant waterfowl populations and liberal hunting regulations. Programs focused on recruiting, retaining, and reactivating (R3) waterfowl hunters have become important to avoid further losses in traditional revenue for habitat management and protection and political support for waterfowl conservation and management. We focus on 4 waterfowl hunter population vital rates (i.e., recruitment rate, retention probability, license purchase probability, realized population growth rate), which can be used to improve the effectiveness of waterfowl hunter R3 activities and initiatives by providing a deeper understanding of waterfowl hunter population dynamics to determine who programs should target, where programs should be targeted, and finally the evaluation of programs. To do so, we analyzed Nebraska state electronic license data from 2012–2019 using Pradel survival and recruitment models in a mark-recapture framework. Female waterfowl hunter recruitment was higher than males; however, retention and license purchase probabilities were lower. Recruitment was highest in younger generations and retention highest in older generations. License purchase probabilities were highest among those in the oldest and youngest generations. The availability of hunting opportunity increased license purchase probabilities but had a minimal influence on retention and no association with recruitment. There were weak relationships between rurality and recruitment, and retention and license purchase probabilities. Finally, belonging to Ducks Unlimited was positively associated with higher license purchase and retention probabilities. Targeting an increase in license purchase probability by promoting social support for hunters through conservation organization membership should be a focus of waterfowl hunter R3 efforts to have the greatest influence on increasing waterfowl hunter participation.     

Effects of hunter access and habitat security on elk habitat selection in landscapes with a public and private land matrix

Traditional elk habitat management on public land has focused on providing security habitat for bull elk during the hunting season to provide for both adequate hunter opportunity and bull survival. This paradigm has given less consideration to adult female elk habitat use, patterns of adjacent land ownership, and hunter access. This paradigm also was developed when elk population sizes were much smaller in many areas. In many Rocky Mountain states, the focus of elk population management has recently shifted to reducing or maintaining elk population sizes, necessitating a better understanding of the implications of security habitat management, as well as patterns of adjacent land ownership and hunter access, on adult female elk. We addressed this need by testing the hypotheses that during the hunting season: 1) adult female elk selection for areas prohibiting or limiting hunter access is stronger than elk selection for publicly owned and managed elk security habitat, 2) these effects occur during the archery hunting period and intensify during the rifle hunting period, and 3) the effects of hunter access on selection are consistent among herds that occupy landscapes characterized by a matrix of public and private lands. We used global position system locations collected from 82 females in 2 different Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) elk herds to evaluate effects of hunter access, security habitat as defined by the Hillis paradigm, and other landscape attributes on adult female elk resource selection during the pre-hunting, archery, rifle, and post-hunting periods. We found that female elk selection for areas restricting public hunting access was stronger than selection for security habitat in both study areas, and that the density of roads open to motorized use was the strongest predictor of elk distribution. Increases in selection for areas that restricted hunting access occurred during the rifle hunting period, and we did not find consistent evidence these movements were triggered by the archery hunting period. Our results provide evidence that in landscapes characterized by a matrix of public and privately owned lands, traditional concepts of elk security habitat need to be expanded to also include areas that restrict hunter access to plan for elk population management that is regulated through adult female harvest. Future efforts should investigate whether elk use of areas that restrict hunter access are flexible behavioral responses to hunting risk, or if these behaviors are passed from generation to generation such that a learned pattern of private land use becomes the normal movement pattern rather than a short-term behavioral response. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

Influence of Landscape Characteristics on Hunter Space Use and Success

Sport hunting of ungulates is a predominant recreational pursuit and the primary tool for managing their populations in North America and beyond, given its influence on ungulate distributions, social organization, and population performance. Similarly, land management, such as motorized vehicle access, influences ungulate distributions during and outside hunting seasons. Although research on ungulate responses to hunting and land use is widespread, knowledge gaps persist about space use of hunters and what landscape features discriminate among hunt types and between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We used telemetry location data from hunters (n = 341) to estimate space use from 2008–2013 during 3 types of controlled, 5-day hunts for antlered mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus canadensis) in northeastern Oregon, USA: archery elk, rifle deer, and rifle elk. To evaluate space use, we developed utilization distributions for each hunter, created core areas (50% contours) for groups of hunters, and derived several metrics of space-use overlap between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We also modeled predictors of space use using resource utilization functions with beta regression and stepwise model building. Hunter space use was compressed, with even the largest core area (unsuccessful rifle elk hunters) encompassing <16% (1,178 ha) of the area. We found strong similarities in space use of rifle hunters compared to archers, and core areas of successful hunters were markedly smaller than those of unsuccessful hunters (e.g., = 104 ha vs. 681 ha, respectively, for archers). Percentage cover and distance from open roads were the most consistent covariates in the 6 final models (successful vs. unsuccessful for each of 3 hunts) but with different signs. For example, predicted use of archery and rifle elk hunters increased with cover but decreased for rifle deer hunters. Although the same covariates were in the final models for unsuccessful and successful rifle elk hunters, their negligible spatial overlap suggested they sought those features in different locales, a pattern also documented for rifle deer hunters. Our models performed well (Spearman's rank correlation coefficients = 0.99 for 5 of 6 models), reflecting their utility for managing hunters and landscapes. Our results suggest that strategic management of open roads and forest cover can benefit managers seeking to balance hunter opportunity and satisfaction with harvest objectives, especially for species of special concern such as mule deer, and that differences in space use among hunter groups should be accounted for in hunting season designs. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.     

Targeting hunter distribution based on host resource selection and kill sites to manage disease risk

Endemic and emerging diseases are rarely uniform in their spatial distribution or prevalence among cohorts of wildlife. Spatial models that quantify risk‐driven differences in resource selection and hunter mortality of animals at fine spatial scales can assist disease management by identifying high‐risk areas and individuals. We used resource selection functions (RSFs) and selection ratios (SRs) to quantify sex‐ and age‐specific resource selection patterns of collared (n = 67) and hunter‐killed (n = 796) nonmigratory elk (Cervus canadensis manitobensis) during the hunting season between 2002 and 2012, in southwestern Manitoba, Canada. Distance to protected area was the most important covariate influencing resource selection and hunter‐kill sites of elk (AICw = 1.00). Collared adult males (which are most likely to be infected with bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) and chronic wasting disease) rarely selected for sites outside of parks during the hunting season in contrast to adult females and juvenile males. The RSFs showed selection by adult females and juvenile males to be negatively associated with landscape‐level forest cover, high road density, and water cover, whereas hunter‐kill sites of these cohorts were positively associated with landscape‐level forest cover and increasing distance to streams and negatively associated with high road density. Local‐level forest was positively associated with collared animal locations and hunter‐kill sites; however, selection was stronger for collared juvenile males and hunter‐killed adult females. In instances where disease infects a metapopulation and eradication is infeasible, a principle goal of management is to limit the spread of disease among infected animals. We map high‐risk areas that are regularly used by potentially infectious hosts but currently underrepresented in the distribution of kill sites. We present a novel application of widely available data to target hunter distribution based on host resource selection and kill sites as a promising tool for applying selective hunting to the management of transmissible diseases in a game species.     

Duck hunter activity,success, and satisfaction on public hunting areas

Because hunting disturbance can influence local distribution of ducks and their availability to hunters, managers often limit access to hunting areas to improve hunting success and satisfaction. Few studies have quantified the effectiveness of public area access restrictions on duck hunter activity, harvest, or hunters' satisfaction with their hunting experience. We used a cross-over design over 6 consecutive hunting seasons (2008–2009 through 2013–2014) on State Wildlife Areas (SWAs) in northeastern Colorado, USA, to compare the effects of restricted hunting access regulations and regulations without these restrictions on duck hunter activity, harvest success, harvest levels, and satisfaction. We also considered effects of SWA types, duck abundance, temperature, precipitation, use of equipment by duck hunting parties, and, for hunter satisfaction, hunting success, hunting parties' satisfaction with ducks seen, habitat conditions, crowding from other hunters, and SWA regulations. The number of days when duck hunters had access to restricted properties was about half that on unrestricted properties, and unrestricted properties were used by about twice as many duck hunting parties, but the mean number of hunting parties per available hunting day and mean party size were similar under the 2 types of regulations. Most (56%) duck hunting parties did not bag any ducks; hunting success (harvest of ≥1 duck by a hunting party) was best explained by a model that included a regulation type × hunting season interaction, a SWA type × month interaction, hunter density the previous day, an index of hunter investment (number of decoys used and whether dogs and calls were used), and temperature. Successful hunting parties harvested 1.92 ± 1.60 (SD) ducks/hunter/day (range = 0.1–7.0); the best model predicting the number of ducks harvested per hunter in successful parties included a regulation type × hunting season interaction, a SWA type × month interaction, hunter density the previous day, an index of hunter investment, temperature, and precipitation. Overall satisfaction of duck hunting parties with a day's hunt averaged 3.62 ± 1.20 based on a rank scale of 1 (very unsatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied), and was best explained by a model that included hunting party success; hunter investment; temperature; and satisfaction with duck numbers, habitat conditions, hunting regulations, and crowding. While greatly reducing days available for hunting, access restrictions were associated with improved chances of hunting parties successfully harvesting ≥1 duck in 5 of 6 hunting seasons, and substantially greater numbers of ducks harvested by hunters in successful parties in 1 of 6 hunting seasons. Restrictions did not have a strong direct effect on hunting parties' satisfaction with a day's hunt. Uncontrolled factors, including weather and use of equipment by hunters, had important influences on hunter success, harvest, and satisfaction. Managers should carefully assess hunting activity, hunter expectations and desires, and hunting area characteristics when considering access restrictions on public hunting areas.     

Behavioral responses of male elk to hunting risk

Prey respond to predation risk with a range of behavioral tactics that can vary based on space use and hunting mode of the predator. Unlike other predators, human hunters are often more spatially and temporally restricted, which creates a period of short-duration, high-intensity predation risk for prey. Consequently, identifying the roles different hunting modes (i.e., archery and rifle), hunts for targeted and non-targeted species, and landscape features play in altering spatial and temporal responses of prey to predation risk by humans is important for effective management of harvested populations. From 2009 to 2016, we used a large-scale experiment including 50 animal-years of location data from 38 unique male elk (Cervus canadensis) to quantify changes in movement and resource selection in response to hunters during 3 separate 5-day controlled hunts for antlered males (elk archery, deer [Odocoileus spp.] rifle, and elk rifle) at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeast Oregon, USA. We evaluated competing hypotheses regarding elk responses to varying levels of prey risk posed by the different hunt types. We predicted that the strength of elk behavioral responses would increase with perceived hunter lethality (i.e., weak response to elk archery but similar response to elk and deer rifle hunts) and that prey response would be closely associated with hunter activity within the diel cycle (greater during diurnal than nocturnal hours) and across hunting seasons. Elk responses were strongest during diurnal hours when hunters were active on the landscape and were generally more pronounced during both rifle hunts than during the archery hunt (supporting our perceived lethality hypothesis). Male elk avoided open roads across all periods except during nocturnal hours of the breeding season and alternated between avoidance of areas with high canopy cover during nocturnal hours and selection during diurnal hours. In combination these patterns led to distinct distributional changes of male elk from pre-hunt to hunt periods. Patterns of male elk selection highlight the importance of managing for heterogeneous landscapes to meet a variety of habitat, harvest, hunter satisfaction, and escapement objectives.     

Evaluating Differences in Harvest Data Used in the Sex-Age-Kill Deer Population Model

Abstract: A steady increase in archery hunting participation and frequent changes in hunter regulations led to an evaluation of harvest data used in a common white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population model. Our goal was to determine if model parameters and population estimates traditionally estimated solely by firearm harvest data were biased with respect to altered sex and age ratios brought about by increases in archery hunting and harvest success. The sex-age-kill (SAK) model, commonly used by state agencies, was developed in the mid-1900s when deer numbers were low and firearm harvest was predominant. Management actions were concentrated on increasing deer numbers, and model assumptions relied heavily on a stable age distribution and a minimal antlerless deer harvest. We evaluated the reliance of SAK in a modern hunting scenario using a 10-year dataset obtained from Michigan, USA, that encompassed a variety of climatic regions, hunting seasons, and regulation scenarios. We found that firearm and archery harvest sex and age ratios differed among 5 geographic groups and study years for males, females, and fawns (P<0.001, P = 0.001, and P = 0.037, respectively). Also, the addition of archery harvest data increased population estimates but did not alter overall trends. We recommend that managers reassess harvest-based population estimates in 2 situations: 1) if regulation changes affect antlerless deer harvest, and 2) when trends in hunter success rates cause fluctuations in harvest data.     

Hunters and hunting patterns in part of the Kaimanawa Recreational Hunting Area

Abstract

A postal survey of 156 hunters who used the three southeastern-most hunting blocks in the Kaimanawa Recreational Hunting Area (RHA) in 1986 and 1987 achieved a 74% response rate. Comparison of age distributions from this and earlier hunter surveys confirmed an apparent decline in recruitment of young hunters entering the sport during the 1980s. Most hunters had considerable experience (>10 years) and were motivated not only by hunting success but also by the aesthetic value of the outdoor experience. The prime motivation for hunting in the Kaimanawa RHA was the presence of sika deer, and more than two-thirds of the hunters came from outside the Tongariro/Taupo Conservancy. Hunting pressure over current sika deer range in the central North Island may decline if this species continues to disperse naturally or through illegal liberations to other areas. Most (80%) hunters felt that deer densities were acceptable and were satisfied with the present unrestricted hunting system. Fewer than half (41%) the respondents were in favour of active management in the Kaimanawa RHA. Suggestions for active management focused on increasing hunter safety and increasing hunting success rates. Deer densities, as indicated by faecal pellet counts, were inversely related to hunting pressure. Variation in hunting pressure between areas was caused mainly by differences in accessibility. This indicates some potential for manipulation of deer density through options such as increasing access to remote areas or restrictions on hunting pressure.     

How Size and Condition Influence Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Female Elk

The size of animal populations fluctuates with number of births, rate of immigration, rate of emigration, and number of deaths. For many ungulate populations, adult female survival is the most important factor influencing population growth. Therefore, increased understanding of survival and causes of mortality for adult females is fundamental for conservation and management. The objectives of our study were to quantify survival rates of female elk (Cervus canadensis) and determine cause-specific mortality. We predicted that hunter harvest would be the leading cause of mortality. Further, we predicted that hunters would harvest animals that were in prime age (2–9 yr) and in better condition than elk predated by mountain lions (Puma concolor). From 2015 to 2017, we captured 376 female elk in central Utah, USA. We assessed body size and condition of captured elk, fitted each animal with a global positioning system-collar, and determined cause of death when we received mortality signals. We estimated survival using Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox proportional hazard models within an Akaike's Information Criterion model selection framework to identify covariates that influenced survival. We analyzed differences in size and condition measurements between harvested elk and predated elk using analysis of variance tests. Our best model indicated consistent survival across years; mean survival was 78.3 ± 3.5% (SE) including hunter harvest and 95.5 ± 1.7% without hunter harvest. In decreasing order of importance, elk mortality occurred from hunter harvest (21.2%), mountain lion predation (3.7%), depredation removal (0.5%), automobile collision (0.3%), disease (0.3%), complications during calving (0.3%), and those characterized as undetermined (1.3%). Neck circumference and body length were negatively associated with survival, suggesting that larger animals in good condition had lower survival as a result of hunter harvest. Individuals that died because of cougar predation were smaller and had less loin muscle than the average animal. Hunters removed large, healthy, prime-aged females, individuals that likely have a greater effect on population growth than elk lost to other predators. If the proportion of larger, healthy females in the population begins to decline, hunting practices may require adjustment because hunters may be removing individuals with the greatest reproductive value. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Influence of habitat features and hunter behavior on white-tailed deer harvest

Sport hunting may help in controlling cervid populations over large areas. As with natural predators, several environmental factors can influence sport harvest. A better understanding of the environmental variables that limit the efficiency of sport hunting could provide guidelines for more efficient wildlife management using hunting. We studied white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting on a high deer density island where hunting was the sole form of predation. Our objective was to study the behavior of sport hunters and determine the habitat characteristics (e.g., abundance of deer forage, visibility of the deer from the hunter's point of view, and accessibility of the territory to hunters) that are associated with a successful harvest. We collected movements and harvest site location data from 477 hunters equipped with handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) units. Harvest sites were visited and characterized, along with a paired random site, to determine the environmental conditions associated with a successful hunt. We also developed a model to predict the daily number of deer seen by hunters considering weather conditions, hunter characteristics (e.g., age, experience), and date of hunting. We used the mean number of deer seen per hunter per day as a relative index of local density in each hunted territory. At both the site and landscape scales, the combination of visibility and access had a positive effect on the distribution of harvested deer. Habitat types with less visual obstruction from vegetation enabled hunters to see more deer in a given day. At the site scale, harvested deer were located in areas with a lower density of access routes compared to areas where hunters travelled throughout the day. Using an innovative approach of studying hunter behavior with GPS technology, digital maps, and questionnaires, we highlighted the factors associated with hunter success. Our study suggests that habitat characteristics could be modified to increase harvest by improving accessibility and visibility near roads. Creating openings in mature and regenerating forest near access roads could make sport hunting a more efficient management tool, but the potential impact of increased forage availability in forest openings should not be overlooked. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Public Access for Pheasant Hunters: Understanding an Emerging Need

Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus; i.e., pheasant) hunting participation is declining across North America, reflecting a larger downward trend in American hunting participation and threatening benefits to grassland conservation and rural economies. To stabilize and expand the pheasant hunting population, we must first identify factors that influence pheasant hunter participation. We used an extensive in-person hunter survey to test the hypothesis that hunter demographics interact with social-ecological traits of hunting locations to affect hunter decisions, outcomes, and perceptions. We built a series of Bayesian mixed effects models to parse variation in demographics, perceptions, and hunt outcomes of pheasant hunters interviewed at public access hunting sites across 3 regions in Nebraska, USA, that varied in pheasant abundance and proximity to urban population centers. Among pheasant hunters in Nebraska, access to private lands was negatively related to the human population density of a pheasant hunter's home ZIP code and the distance a hunter had traveled to reach a hunting location. Pheasant hunters interviewed closer to metropolitan areas tended to be more urban and travel shorter distances, and their parties were more likely to include youth but less likely to include dogs. Hunter satisfaction was positively associated with seeing and harvesting pheasants and hunting with youth. Whereas youth participation and the number of pheasants seen varied by study region, hunter satisfaction did not differ across regions, suggesting that hunters may calibrate their expectations and build their parties based on where they plan to hunt. The variation in hunter demographics across hunting locations and disconnects between social and ecological correlates of hunter satisfaction suggests that diverse pheasant hunting constituencies will be best served by diverse pheasant hunting opportunities. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Evaluating how hunters see and react to telemetry collars on white-tailed deer

Fates of individuals outfitted with radiotransmitters commonly are used for estimating survival rates in populations of large animals that are hunted. Despite precautions, this practice may be subject to complex biases associated with hunter reaction to presence of radiotransmitters. To assess this potential bias we conducted an experiment using artificial deer (i.e., decoys) to measure hunters' abilities to see deer and determine if deer seen were wearing radiocollars. We used logistic regression to quantify probabilities that seeing deer and subsequently seeing radiocollars might be influenced by distance, percent visual obstruction, body orientation, hunter experience, and antler characteristics of deer. Additionally, we evaluated how experience and antler characteristics of deer might influence a hunter's decision to harvest a radiocollared deer. We found that 25.8% of the potentially observable collared deer (n = 663) were subsequently observed by hunters. Odds of observing deer and radiocollars increased 95% and 230%, respectively, for each additional log(yr) of hunting experience. Willingness to harvest radiocollared deer increased 89% for each additional log(yr) of hunting experience and 144% for large-antlered deer relative to antlerless deer. When hunting is an important source of mortality, analysts need to understand how potential biases associated with observing deer are associated with hunters' reactions to and subsequent decisions to harvest radiocollared animals. Our study suggested that presence of radiocollars may influence a deer's potential risk of being harvested and in turn bias telemetry-based estimates of survival, given that hunting mortality is the largest component of total mortality in hunted deer populations. Collar-based telemetry is used nearly universally by wildlife managers and researchers throughout North America and elsewhere to estimate and monitor the survival of big game populations that are managed through hunting. Our findings demonstrate that these estimates are likely subject to complex and systematic biases that managers should consider when evaluating future population-level effects of managed hunting. © 2011 The Wildlife Society     

Use of Bait to Increase Archery Deer Harvest in an Urban–Suburban Landscape

Abstract: Hunting is the primary tool for managing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations. Effectiveness of hunting in suburban areas may be reduced due to limited hunter access to small properties, firearms-discharge laws, and public safety concerns. In Connecticut, USA, hunting over bait on private land was recently legalized to increase harvest opportunities. Our objective was to assess bow-hunter willingness to use bait and effects of bait type, hunter disturbance, time spent hunting, and property size on deer-harvest potential in a suburban landscape. We mailed a prebaiting survey in February 2002 and a postbaiting survey in February 2004 to the same group of hunters. Hunters using bait were more successful and harvested more deer than hunters using no bait. Hunters using bait on small properties observed similar numbers of deer within shooting range as hunters using bait on larger properties. Hunters using bait met their venison needs, whereas hunters using no bait did not meet their needs. Resource managers should implement strategies that increase hunter success when developing urban deer-management programs for communities.     

Spatio-temporal variation in male white-tailed deer harvest rates in Pennsylvania: Implications for estimating abundance

The performance of 2 popular methods that use age-at-harvest data to estimate abundance of white-tailed deer is contingent on assumptions about variation in estimates of subadult (1.5 yr old) and adult (≥2.5 yr old) male harvest rates. Auxiliary data (e.g., estimates of survival or harvest rates from radiocollared animals) can be used to relax some assumptions, but unless these population parameters exhibit limited temporal or spatial variation, these auxiliary data may not improve accuracy. Unfortunately maintaining sufficient sample sizes of radiocollared deer for parameter estimation in every wildlife management unit (WMU) is not feasible for most state agencies. We monitored the fates of 397 subadult and 225 adult male white-tailed deer across 4 WMUs from 2002 to 2008 using radio telemetry. We investigated spatial and temporal variation in harvest rates and investigated covariates related to the patterns observed. We found that most variation in harvest rates was explained spatially and that adult harvest rates (0.36–0.69) were more variable among study areas than subadult harvest rates (0.26–0.42). We found that hunter effort during the archery and firearms season best explained variation in harvest rates of adult males among WMUs, whereas hunter effort during only the firearms season best explained harvest rates for subadult males. From a population estimation perspective, it is advantageous that most variation was spatial and explained by a readily obtained covariate (hunter effort). However, harvest rates may vary if hunting regulations or hunter behavior change, requiring additional field studies to obtain accurate estimates of harvest rates. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Autumn resource selection by female elk in a recently burned landscape in western Montana

Wildfire activity across the western United States has increased in recent decades, with wildfires burning at a higher severity and larger scale. The effect of wildfires on forest structure and wildlife habitat is largely influenced by wildfire severity; however, few studies have evaluated the effects of wildfire severity on resource selection of ungulates, particularly during hunting seasons, when knowledge of resource selection is essential for making informed management decisions. To fill this knowledge gap, we fit resource selection probability functions for female elk (Cervus canadensis) in years 2 and 3 post-wildfire to evaluate the effects of wildfire severity and other environmental and anthropogenic factors on elk resource selection during 4 autumn periods with varying levels of hunter pressure (prehunt, archery-only, backcountry rifle, and rifle). The probability of female elk selecting low-severity burned forests during the prehunt, archery-only, backcountry rifle, and rifle periods was 0.99 (95% credible interval [CrI] = 0.98–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.97–1.00), 0.99 (CrI = 0.99–1.00), and 0.0010 (CrI = 0.00067–0.0015]), respectively, and did not strongly differ from the probability of selecting high-severity burned forests. During the prehunt period, elk also selected areas with greater forage quality and areas farther from open roads. Elk selected similar resources during the archery period, and selected areas with higher hunter pressure. Elk started leaving hunting districts that had higher snowpack (i.e., snow water equivalent; β = −0.84, CrI = −0.96–−0.72) and allowed rifle hunting (β = −5.39, CrI = −5.80–−4.97) but still selected areas with higher hunter pressure (β = 0.92, CrI = 0.78–1.07) during the backcountry rifle period. During the rifle period, elk continued avoiding areas with high snowpack (β = −3.96, CrI = −4.22–−3.71) and started selecting areas with lower hunter pressure (β = −1.71, CrI = −1.79–−1.64) and lower canopy cover. Overall, wildfire affected elk distributions in early autumn 2 and 3 years after fire in our study area, with limited differences in resource selection between wildfire severity categories. By late autumn, hunter pressure and snowpack were the primary factors influencing elk distribution, and wildfire had little influence on selection. When estimating wildfire effects on elk movements during autumn and establishing appropriate hunting regulations, managers should consider the hunting season, hunter pressure, timing and amount of snowpack, location of traditional winter range, and the seasonal elk range burned, as all these factors may contribute to how elk use the landscape in autumn.     

Land use and dispersal influence mortality in white-tailed deer

Restoring male age structure in white-tailed deer populations has become an important objective for many state agencies aimed at improving herd dynamics. Limiting mortality in the yearling (1–2 yr old) age class is a primary consideration, and regional differences in climate, habitat characteristics, hunting regulations, and hunter behavior complicate the understanding of how specific factors influence the risk of mortality. We used Cox proportional hazard modeling to determine the effects of body size, mean distance to road, dispersal behaviors, use of forested land, and use of land open to public hunting on the risk of mortality for a population of radio-collared, yearling males (n = 76) in Sussex County, Delaware, USA. Annual survival averaged 0.55 (95% CI = 0.45–0.68), with harvest accounting for 79% (26/33) of all mortalities. Measurements of body size (chest girth, shoulder height, and total length; cm) influenced dispersal probability but not dispersal distance. The best approximating model for mortality risk included a covariate for landownership, whereby mortality risk increased on public land. Among males who dispersed, longer-distance dispersal was associated with reduced mortality, which contradicts previous research describing dispersal as a high-risk behavior. The effect of landownership on mortality risk has not been previously identified, especially when regulations regarding harvest of yearling males are similar between landownership types. We observed annual survival rates of 0.69 (95% CI = 0.57–0.82) for deer apparently using private land exclusively during the hunting season, and 0.20 (95% CI = 0.11–0.48) for deer that used public land during the hunting season. Survival rates on private land were comparable to those of other regions actively managing male age structure. These results suggest survival of yearling males in the region is influenced by hunter harvest and the risks associated with dispersal may be minimal in areas where harvest pressure is low, although hunter harvest on public land may limit male age structure on a localized scale. © The Wildlife Society, 2019     

The economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land

Access to lands for hunting is widely recognized as critical to sustaining and developing participation in hunting. Deer hunters comprise a substantial portion of recreational hunters in the United States, and numerous stakeholders benefit from the deer management services provided by hunters on public lands. We estimated the economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land in Michigan using economic models of hunting destinations for hunters in the archery season and for hunters in the firearm season. We found that the amounts of state-owned hunting land, federally owned hunting land, and publicly accessible, privately owned Commercial Forest Act land are significant (P < 0.001) and positive determinants of hunting destinations. The annual economic value of Michigan's publicly accessible hunting land to archery and firearm deer hunters, beyond hunter expenditures, was estimated to be over $80 million. Access to state-owned land accounted for approximately $50 million in annual economic value to Michigan deer hunters. The average per-acre value of publicly accessible hunting land is greatest in the Southern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, where public access is scarce and the majority of hunters reside. Understanding the economic values hunters derive from publicly accessible hunting lands will enable managers and policy makers to make better decisions when considering policy options that involve reducing or increasing public access. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

The influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on spring turkey hunting

The rapid rise of COVID-19 and the governmental response to slow the spread of the pandemic occurred prior to, or during, the opening of the spring wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) hunting seasons (Mar to May 2020) in the United States. The response of fish and wildlife agencies to the pandemic varied throughout the United States during the spring turkey season. The Nebraska Game and Parks Commission (NGPC) suspended the sale of non-resident, spring turkey hunting permits on 30 March 2020 in a proactive effort to minimize the spread of COVID-19. In this study, we evaluated the extent that the COVID-19 pandemic affected the spring turkey permit sales and harvest in Nebraska, USA. We combined information from NGPC's electronic licensing system, responses from 2017–2019 spring turkey hunter surveys (pre-pandemic), and responses from the 2020 (during the pandemic) spring turkey hunter survey, which included additional questions about the influence of COVID-19 on respondents' hunting experiences. There was an increase in the number of resident hunters (23%) and resident permits sold (26%) and a decrease in the number of non-resident hunters (−88%) and non-resident permits sold (−89%) in 2020 as compared to the 3 years prior. Further, non-residents, more so than Nebraska residents, claimed that the COVID-19 pandemic affected their spring turkey hunting in their precautions taken, overall satisfaction, pre-season planning for the spring turkey season, and plans made prior to the outbreak. Wildlife agencies should prepare for the potential effects that significant disruptions (like that observed with the COVID-19 pandemic) might have on hunting participation, especially if a significant portion of revenue is derived from non-resident permit sales, and develop plans and policies so that they can react appropriately.     

An Evaluation of Hunter Self-Monitoring in the Bolivian Chaco

Community wildlife management is being tested across the tropics as a means of promoting the conservation and sustainable use of wildlife resources. Key to successful programs is the effective participation of local hunters and communities in monitoring, planning, decision-making and implementation. We evaluate one method to achieve this participation, namely hunter self-monitoring. Between 1997 and 2000, Izoceño hunters from 22 communities in the Bolivian Chaco have voluntarily participated in monitoring their hunting activities, measuring and recording data on captured animals and hunting methods in personal notebooks. Despite the lack of remuneration, participation exceeds 60% of active hunters. However, the written information and specimens provided are not complete, and are biased according to hunting methods and prey characteristics. Complementary research is essential to answer specific research questions. Nevertheless, hunter self-monitoring serves to raise awareness of wildlife management issues at the communal or indigenous territory level, as evidenced by preliminary actions taken by hunters and communities in the Izozog.     

Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Male Mule Deer Under Different Hunting Regulations in the Bridger Mountains,Montana

Abstract: We selected 2 adjacent populations of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) in the Bridger Mountains, Montana, USA, to measure effects on survival rates and causes of mortality of 2 hunting regulations designed to enhance representation of mature males. We compared male survival between the West Slope and South 16 Mile populations considering both hunting and nonhunting sources of mortality with respect to age (fawn, yearling, and mature), month (Jun-May), and year (1990-1995). Harvest rates of mature males were greater than for yearlings, demonstrating hunter preferences. We found no differences in yearling monthly survival rates between October and November or between areas or years. In contrast, we found survival of mature males differed between October and November and across years and study areas. During these months, survival rates of mature males averaged 0.602 on the West Slope under the 2-point regulation and 0.762 on South 16 Mile under the outfitted hunt. Monthly survival during summer also differed by age class, but not area, with estimates of 0.963 for yearling males, and corresponding mature male survival estimates of 0.991, demonstrating greater yearling summer mortality. Winter survival rates of yearlings and matures were similar for both areas with a monthly estimate of 0.986. We found differences in spring monthly survival estimates for the 2 areas, mainly for matures. Yearling male monthly survival estimates were 0.959 and 0.958 for the 2 areas, whereas corresponding mature male estimates during spring were 0.991 and 0.936 on the West Slope and South 16 Mile, respectively. Fawn survival rates varied from 0.101 to 0.770 among years and between areas overwinter. Cumulative effects of nonhunting mortality among all age classes reduced the effectiveness of 2 hunting regulations designed to enhance survival of males to age classes ≥4 years associated with maximum antler development despite accomplishing reductions in harvest rates. Low and variable fawn survival and relatively high nonhunting-related losses of yearling and mature males might be typical of many populations in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Deer managers should avoid populations coexisting with a diversity of large predators in environments with strong year effects when considering opportunities for implementing harvest regulations to improve representation of mature males.