Conservation status of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prodontria</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) species in New Zealand

The genus Prodontria (Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae), which comprises 16 described species, is an endemic southern New Zealand genus occupying lowland and coastal habitats, inter-montane basins and alpine environments. Many of the species have a limited distribution and face potential threats from habitat change and predation. The only species to be formally protected is P. lewisii Broun, commonly known as the Cromwell Chafer, which is now restricted to a 81-ha reserve in Central Otago. One undescribed lowland species might be extinct as a result of habitat modification. The current status of Prodontria species, the known distribution of species and potential threats are discussed. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Seed weight increases with altitude in the Swiss Alps between related species but not among populations of individual species

Seed weight is a crucial plant life history trait, determining establishment success and dispersal ability. Especially in stressful environments, larger seeds may be selected at the expense of seed number, because larger seeds have a better chance of giving rise to an established offspring. We tested the hypotheses that between related species-pairs and among populations of single species a similar trend for increasing seed weight with increasing altitude should be present. Firstly, we measured seed weights from 29 species-pairs, with one species occurring in lowland areas and a congeneric species from high altitudes. Seeds of the alpine species were 28±8% larger than seeds from lowland species (P<0.01). Compared to the related lowland species, 55% of the alpine species had heavier seeds, 3% (one species) had lighter, and 41% had seeds of approximately equal weight. Secondly, we compared seed weights among populations of four species from different habitats and with different life histories. Seeds from between 11 and 34 populations per species were sampled along altitudinal gradients of 800–1,500 m (ca. 800 m in Scabiosa lucida, ca. 1,000 m in Saxifraga oppositifolia, ca. 1,000 m in Epilobium fleischeri, and ca. 1,500 m in Carex flacca). In all the four species, we found no indication for heavier seeds at higher altitudes. Our results indicate a selection pressure for species with heavier seeds at higher altitude, but the trend does not seem to operate across all cases. Phylogenetic constraints may limit the correlation among altitude and seed weight, operating particularly against selection for larger seed size, the closer populations and species are related to each other.     

How have the alpine dwarf plants in Yakushima been miniaturized? A comparative study of two alpine dwarf species in Yakushima, Blechnum niponicum (Blechnaceae) and Lysimachia japonica (Primulaceae)

Many plant species are miniaturized in the alpine region in Yakushima, Japan. To examine how these alpine dwarf plants are different from their related lowland ones of the same species, we analyzed two phylogenetically distinct species cytologically, genetically and morphologically: one is a fern species, Blechnum niponicum, and the other is an angiosperm species, Lysimachia japonica. The analysis shows that the alpine dwarf and the lowland plants in each of these species do not differ in chromosome number or genetic constitution. The organ-level comparison between the alpine dwarf and lowland plants of B. niponicum shows that the fertile leaf size correlates closely with the sterile one. By contrast, the flower size does not correlate with the leaf size in L. japonica. At the cell level, the leaf size of the alpine dwarf plants of B. niponicum consists of a smaller number of epidermal cells than that of the lowland plants of this species. On the other hand, the smaller leaf size of the alpine dwarf plants of L. japonica depends on both the smaller number and the smaller size of the epidermal cells. We conclude that plant dwarfism in Yakushima shows variation at both the organ and cell levels.     

Cochlearia macrorrhiza (Brassicaceae): A bridging species between Cochlearia taxa from the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians?

Cochlearia macrorrhiza is one of the most highly endangered species in Central Europe and less than five individuals survived at its natural stand in a lowland area between the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians. Amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) confirmed the status of C. macrorrhiza as a distinct taxon. Lowland C. macrorrhiza does not bridge the distribution of montainous and alpine Cochlearia species from the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians genetically, and C. macrorrhiza represents a separate lineage which evolved from diploid Cochlearia as C. excelsa in East Austrian high alpine regions did. Another species considered in this study, the Romanian C. borzaeana is more closely related to C. tatrae from the High Tatra mountains than to C. pyrenaica from Slovakia or Austria and the AFLP results suggest a single origin of alpine 2n=42 taxa. Genetic differentiation within and between populations is highly structured geographically, and the AFLP data favour a former widespread distribution of C. pyrenaica in mountainous regions and a parallel evolution of high alpine taxa in the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians, respectively.     

Comparative ecology of a lowland and a subalpine species of Mnium in the northern Rocky Mountains

Factors that set the altitudinal limits of plants have been relatively well explored for many land plant groups, but not for bryophytes. Bryophytes typically represent a significant portion of alpine floras with many species specific to highland systems. Differences between highland and lowland bryophytes have been underinvestigated. In the present study spanning three growing seasons, a subalpine and a lowland moss were both reciprocally planted as apical fragments and transplanted as adults between sites at 1400 m and 2000 m in the Front Ranges of the Rocky Mountains, Alberta. The lowland species, Mnium spinulosum, was less tolerant of conditions at 2000 m than the subalpine species, M. arizonicum, was to conditions at 1400 m. In particular, M. spinulosum had lower establishment from both apical fragments and spores at higher elevation sites. Both species had significantly lower establishment during the abnormally cold growing season of 1999, but fragments of M. arizonicum were better able to adjust their investment in establishment. The effect of a dominant feather moss, Hylocomium splendens, on establishment and transplant health was tested for M. arizonicum. Establishment of M. arizonicum was lower in Hylocomium mats than on bare humus regardless of site elevation suggesting allelopathy; however, stem survival in adult transplants was higher in Hylocomium mats than in Mnium dominated microsites at the higher elevation suggesting facilitation. Competition, rather than a lack of physiological plasticity, probably determines the lower elevation limit of the subalpine moss, while poor establishment ability at low temperatures accounts for the upper elevation limit of the montane moss. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Phylogeny of the avian genus Pitohui and the evolution of toxicity in birds

Bird species in the avian genus Pitohui contain potent neurotoxic alkaloids that may be used for defense. The genus comprises multiple species that are endemic to New Guinea and were presumed to belong to the family Pachycephalidae or Colluricinclidae, within the core corvoidea, an ancient Australasian radiation of crow-like birds. In order to understand the evolution of toxicity within the genus Pitohui, we sequenced three mitochondrial and two nuclear gene segments and reconstructed a phylogeny of the genus Pitohui and its putative relatives. We show that the genus Pitohui is polyphyletic, and consists of five different lineages. Using Bayesian ancestral state reconstruction, we estimate that toxicity likely evolved multiple times within this group. Furthermore, because the morphological and behavioral similarity among these poisonous birds appears to have evolved convergently, we hypothesize that this may be a possible example of Müllerian mimicry in birds. The Morningbird of Palau, Micronesia, that has often been included in the genus Pitohui, actually belongs in the genus Pachycephala and offers an intriguing case of pronounced evolution on a remote oceanic island.     

A phylogeographic study of the cosmopolitan genus Phragmites (Poaceae) based on AFLPs

Within the genus Phragmites (Poaceae), the species P. australis (the common reed) is virtually cosmopolitan, and shows considerable variation in ploidy level and morphology. Genetic variation in Phragmites was studied using AFLPs, and analysed with parsimony and distance methods. Groups of P. australis strongly supported in the analyses include one that comprises all South American clones, a distinct group from the US Gulf Coast, and a group of E. Asian and Australian octoploids. Among the other species, the paleotropical P. vallatoria is supported as monophyletic and most closely related to the paraphyletic P. mauritianus and to the Gulf Coast and S. American groups. The E. Asian species P. japonicus is closely related to a group of P. australis clones mostly from central North America. Tetraploidy predominates in the genus, and optimisation of chromosome numbers onto the phylogeny shows that higher ploidy levels have evolved many times.     

Molecular and morphological data suggest that Spinibarbus caldwelli (Nichols) (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) is a valid species

The taxonomic problem of the cyprinid species of genus Spinibarbus, occurring in southern China and northern Vietnam, was resolved on the basis of molecular and morphological analyses. Spinibarbus caldwelli and Spinibarbus hollandi have a smooth posterior edge of the last unbranched dorsal fin ray among species in the genus. Spinibarbus caldwelli is currently regarded as a junior synonym of S. hollandi because of ambiguities in diagnostic characters. In this article, 11 mtDNA cytochrome b sequences of Spinibarbus specimens were analyzed together with Barbodes gonionotus and Puntius conchonius as outgroups. Our results showed that specimens identified as S. hollandi from Taiwan were different from those from the Asian mainland at a high level of genetic divergence (0.097–0.112), which is higher than that between the two valid species, S. sinensis and S. yunnanensis (0.089), and suggested that Taiwan specimens should be considered as a different species from the Asian mainland one. In a molecular phylogenetic analysis, the sister-group relationship between Taiwan specimens and the Asian mainland specimens was supported strongly by a high confidence level (100% in bootstrap value). Further analysis of morphological characters showed that overlap of diagnostic characters is much weaker than previously suggested. Taiwan specimens had 8 branched rays in the dorsal fin, whereas those from the mainland had almost 9–10. The molecular and morphological differences suggest S. caldwelli to be valid. The molecular divergence shows the genetic speciation of S. hollandi and S. caldwelli might have occurred 5.6–4.9 million years ago; the former could be a relict species in Taiwan, and the latter dispersed in the Asian mainland.     

Molecular phylogeny of Alnus (Betulaceae), inferred from nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences

The nuclear ITS region of 19 species of Alnus was amplified and sequenced. The inferred molecular phylogeny shows that all species of the genus Alnus form a monophyletic group close to Betula and that the fundamental dichotomy within the genus lies between the subgenera Alnaster and Gymnothyrsus, sensu Murai (1964). The subgenus Alnaster appears to be basal in the genus, based on archaism of morphological features, and branching close to the root of the trees due to low ITS divergence from genus Betula. The monophyly of the section Clethropsis is not supported by the present data: Alnus nepalensis is positioned in the subgenus Gymnothyrsus, away from A. nitida and A. maritima. Surprisingly, A. formosana sect. Japonicae is closely tied to A. maritima sect. Clethropsis, with which it shares few morphological traits, and is separate from A. japonica sect. Japonicae with which it shares many traits. An increase in substitution rate is noted in the group comprising A. formosana, A. maritima and A. nitida relative to the rest of the genus, which appears to have had, on the average, a very slow mutation rate. Alnus glutinosa, the designated type for the genus, appears to be representative of the genus both for morphological characters and evolutionary rate. North-East Asia is comforted in its position of origin of the genus since not only does it have the highest number of species and representatives in all deep branching lineages, there are also fewer transcontinental migrations when a North-East Asian ancestor is postulated than when a North American ancestor is postulated.     

Phylogeographic patterns in Leccinum sect. Scabra and the status of the arctic-alpine species L. rotundifoliae

We investigated inter- and intraspecific phylogenetic relationships in the ectomycorrhizal fungal genus Leccinum section Scabra. Species of this section are exclusively associated with Betula and occur throughout the Northern Hemisphere. We compared the phylogenetic relationships of arctic, alpine, boreal and temperate accessions of section Scabra based on DNA sequences of the single-copy nuclear gene Gapdh and the multiple-copy nuclear region 5.8S-ITS2. Exclusively arctic lineages were not detected in species that occur both in arctic-alpine or boreal regions, except in L. rotundifoliae that was restricted to cold climates. L. scabrum and L. holopus showed an intercontinental phylogeographic pattern, and L. variicolor showed a pattern unrelated to geographical distribution. Molecular clock estimates indicated that L. rotundifoliae is as old as other species in section Scabra. Individual gene trees suggest that interspecific hybridisation occurred several times in the evolution of section Scabra.     

Molecular phylogeny of the Acre clade (Crassulaceae): Dealing with the lack of definitions for Echeveria and Sedum

The phylogenetic relationships within many clades of the Crassulaceae are still uncertain, therefore in this study attention was focused on the “Acre clade”, a group comprised of approximately 526 species in eight genera that include many Asian and Mediterranean species of Sedum and the majority of the American genera (Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Lenophyllum, Pachyphytum, Villadia, and Thompsonella). Parsimony and Bayesian analyses were conducted with 133 species based on nuclear (ETS, ITS) and chloroplast DNA regions (rpS16, matK). Our analyses retrieved four major clades within the Acre clade. Two of these were in a grade and corresponded to Asian species of Sedum, the rest corresponded to a European–Macaronesian group and to an American group. The American group included all taxa that were formerly placed in the Echeverioideae and the majority of the American Sedoideae. Our analyses support the monophyly of three genera – Lenophyllum, Thompsonella, and Pachyphytum; however, the relationships among Echeveria, Sedum and the various segregates of Sedum are largely unresolved. Our analyses represents the first broad phylogenetic framework for Acre clade, but further studies are necessary on the groups poorly represented here, such as the European and Asian species of Sedum and the Central and South American species of Echeveria.     

Vegetation on avalanche paths in the alps

Vegetation pattern on avalanche paths in the Nordkette Mountains near Innsbruck (Tyrol, Austria) was studied using transect sampling. The plant communities represent a gradient from alpine grassland (Seslerio-Caricetum sempervirentis, via grassland with Trisetum distichophyllum) and nutrient-poor grassland (Carlino-Caricetum sempervirentis) to an avalanche grassland proper. Along this gradient disturbance decreases from higher to lower elevations. The topography of the avalanche path suggests a gradient from the central zone to the edge of the path, although a floristic zonation or grouping of species across the path cannot be detected. Disturbance and local topography are the dominant factors for the vegetation pattern on the avalanche paths investigated.Abbreviations DCA= detrended correspondence analysis     

狭义蛇葡萄属东亚支系的系统发生与生物地理演化

狭义蛇葡萄属(Ampelopsis s. str.)是葡萄科的落叶木质藤本植物,主要分布在北半球温带地区,特别是东亚为其重要的分布和演化中心。该研究选取了狭义蛇葡萄属15个种的37个样本,对其5个叶绿体基因片段(trnL-F、rps16、psbA-trnH、atpB-rbcL和trnK-petN)和2个核基因标记(ITS和GAI1)进行了分子测序;利用测序获得的分子数据探讨属内的系统发生关系,叶的性状演化以及生物地理起源演化。结果表明：(1)狭义蛇葡萄属是一个单系类群,属内东亚地区的物种聚成一支。(2)叶绿体基因数据分析结果表明,狭义蛇葡萄属东亚支系分为两支系,这两支系的分布范围大致与东亚植物区系的中国-日本森林和中国-喜马拉雅森林亚区范围相一致。(3)形态演化分析表明,掌状复叶为祖征,叶形态性状存在多次的独立起源和演化,其变化与系统进化没有明显的关系。(4)生物地理分析结果表明,狭义蛇葡萄属起源于北美,渐新世晚期至中新世早期迁移扩散至欧洲,中新世中期随着全球气温回暖迁移至东亚,并进一步在东亚地区快速分化形成多样化中心,这可能与中新世时期的气候温暖、受第四纪冰川影响较少以及东亚地区复杂...     

Genetic divergence and evolutionary relationships in six species of genera Hoplobatrachus and Euphlyctis (Amphibia: Anura) from Bangladesh and other Asian countries revealed by mitochondrial gene sequences

To elucidate the species composition, genetic divergence, evolutionary relationships, and divergence time of Hoplobatrachus and Euphlyctis frogs (subfamily Dicroglossinae, family Ranidae) in Bangladesh and other Asian countries, we analyzed the mitochondrial Cyt b, 12S, and 16S rRNA genes of 252 specimens. Our phylogenetic analyses showed 13 major clades corresponding to several cryptic species as well as to nominal species in the two genera. The results suggested monophyly of Asian Hoplobatrachus species, but the position of African Hoplobatrachus occipitalis was not clarified. Nucleotide divergence and phylogenetic data suggested the presence of allopatric cryptic species allied to Euphlyctis hexadactylus in Sundarban, Bangladesh and several parapatric cryptic species in the Western Ghats, India. The presence of at least two allopatric cryptic species among diverged Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis in Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka was also suggested. In some cases, our estimated divergence times matched the paleogeological events of South and Southeast Asian regions that may have led to the divergence of Hoplobatrachus and Euphlyctis taxa. Especially, land formation at Bangladesh (15–10 Ma) may have allowed the spread of these frog taxa to Southeast Asian areas, and the aridification of central India (5.1–1.6 Ma) might have affected the gene flow of widely distributed species. The present study revealed prior underestimation of the richness of the amphibian fauna in this region, indicating the possible occurrence of many cryptic species among these groups.     

广西被子植物二新记录属

在第四次中药资源普查中采集了大量标本,经过对这些标本进行仔细鉴定并查阅相关资料,确定其中两号标本为香茜属(Carlemannia Benth.)和粘腺果属(Commicarpus Standl.)植物。这两属植物在广西尚无报道,为首次记录。香茜属植物叶对生,子房下位,无托叶,雄蕊仅有2枚,这和茜草科相似但又不同,系统位置较混乱,以前曾放于茜草科( Rubiaceae)和忍冬科( Caprifoliaceae)中,最近该属和蜘蛛花属独立成香茜科( Car-lemanniaceae)。该属植物共有3种,沿喜马拉雅山脉向东一直分布到缅甸、越南北部。我国西藏东南、云南南部、广西西北部分布一种即香茜( Carlenannia chinenesis Hook. f.)。粘腺果属是紫茉莉科( Nyctaginaceae)主产热带地区的1个属,全世界约25种分布于热带非洲和阿拉伯半岛南部,在南亚、东南亚和墨西哥至热带美洲也有少量分布。中国产2种,其中广西产1种即中华粘腺果[ Commiaicarpus chinensis ( L.) Heim.]。该种植物分布广泛,从南亚次大陆向东至中南半岛、马来半岛,向北到我国西沙群岛、海南岛以及广州附近,在广西首次记录,产凤山县和凌云县。     

A multilocus phylogeny of Malagasy scincid lizards elucidates the relationships of the fossorial genera Androngo and Cryptoscincus

A phylogeny for 29 species of scincine lizards from Madagascar, based on 3693 bp of six mitochondrial and five nuclear genes, revealed multiple parallel evolution of adaptations for a burrowing life, and unexpected relationships of the monotypic genera Androngo and Cryptoscincus. Androngo trivittatus was sister to Pygomeles braconnieri, and Cryptoscincus minimus was deeply nested within the genus Paracontias, all of these being fossorial taxa of elongated bodies and partly or fully reduced limbs. To account for these results, we place Cryptoscincus as a junior synonym of Paracontias, and discuss possible taxonomic consequences that may affect the status of Androngo, once additional data become available.     

Retrotransposon Mys was active during evolution of the Peromyscus leucopus-maniculatus complex

Mys is a retrovirus-like transposable element found throughout the genus Peromyscus. Several mys subfamilies identified on the basis of restriction site variation occur in more than one species. The distribution of these subfamilies is consistent with the accepted species phylogeny, suggesting that mys was present in the ancestor of Peromyscus and has been active through much of the evolution of this genus. Quantitative Southern blot analysis was used to examine the variability of subfamilies in P. leucopus and maniculatus. We found that subfamilies with phylogenetically narrow distributions were more variable in copy number both within and between species than subfamilies with a broader distribution. Taken together, our data suggest that mys has undergone multiple rounds of transposition since the peromyscine radiation, and that five subfamilies have been amplified during the evolution of the leucopus-maniculatus species complex. Correspondence to: H.A. Wichman     

Pollen morphology in the genus Veronica L. (Plantaginaceae) and its systematic significance

Pollen grains of 30, mainly annual, species from 134 populations of the genus Veronica (Plantaginaceae, formerly Scrophulariaceae) from the Mediterranean Region, have been studied with light and scanning electron microscopy. Three pollen types are defined based on pollen size and exine surface sculpture. In some cases within the study group pollen size can be useful in species determination. Hypothetical relationships of pollen grain size and aperture number with ploidy level, style length and corolla diameter are discussed. The ornamentation of the exine in Veronica, although generally a conservative character within the genus, gives some additional support to the most recent infrageneric classification of Veronica.     

Hygrochastic capsule dehiscence supports safe site strategies in New Zealand alpine Veronica (Plantaginaceae)

Background and Aims

Hygrochasy is a capsule-opening mechanism predominantly associated with plants in arid habitats, where it facilitates spatially and temporally restricted dispersal. Recently, hygrochastic capsules were described in detail for the first time in alpine Veronica in New Zealand. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether hygrochastic capsules are an adaptation of alpine Veronica to achieve directed dispersal to safe sites. We expect that by limiting dispersal to rainfall events, distances travelled by seeds are short and confine them to small habitat patches where both seedlings and adults have a greater chance of survival.

Methods

Dispersal distances of five hygrochastic Veronica were measured under laboratory and field conditions and the seed shadow was analysed. Habitat patch size of hygrochastic Veronica and related non-hygrochastic species were estimated and compared.

Key Results

Dispersal distances achieved by dispersal with raindrops did not exceed 1 m but weather conditions could influence the even distribution of seeds around the parent plant. Compared with related Veronica species, hygrochastic Veronica mostly grow in small, restricted habitat patches surrounded by distinctly different habitats. These habitat patches provide safe sites for seeds due to their microtopography and occurrence of adult cushion plants. Non-hygrochastic Veronica can be predominantly found in large habitats without clearly defined borders and can be spread over long distances along rivers.

Conclusions

The results suggest that hygrochasy is a very effective mechanism of restricting seed dispersal to rainfall events and ensuring short-distance dispersal within a small habitat patch. It appears that it is an adaptation for directed dispersal to safe sites that only exist within the parent habitat.     

Phylogenetics and evolution of the Macaronesian members of the genus Aichryson (Crassulaceae) inferred from nuclear and chloroplast sequence data

Aichryson is a genus of annual or perennial herbs, comprising approximately 13 species. The genus is nearly endemic to Macaronesia, with the center of diversity on the Canary Islands. Previous studies indicate that Aichryson is monophyletic and sister to a clade comprising two other genera, Monanthes and Aeonium. However, phylogenetic relationships within the genus have yet to be investigated. Phylogenetic relationships were estimated for Aichryson using DNA sequence data from both the nuclear and chloroplast genome. Parsimony analyses were conducted using separate nuclear and chloroplast data sets, as well as a combined data set. These combined analyses provide a well-resolved topology that is used to investigate patterns of evolution within the genus. For example, although typically herbaceous in habit, two members display a woody growth form. Our analyses indicate that woodiness is a derived feature in Aichryson that has arisen once. Furthermore, the data presented suggest that the Aichryson pachycaulon group, a group of five subspecies, are in fact not monophyletic and that a reexamination of classification is necessary. The present study indicates that the biogeographical patterns exhibited by Aichryson appear to be rare, occurring in only one other known genus.The authors would like to thank Susana Fontinha of the Madeiran Botanical Garden for plant material of Madeiran Aichryson; Drs. D. Crawford and J. Archibald, as well as two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments; Eastern Illinois Undergraduate Honors Research Fund, and University of Kansas Plant Biology Research Award. Additional financial support for this work was provided by the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and the Museum of Natural History and Biodiversity Research Center, University of Kansas and a Kansas NSF EPSCoR First Award (NSF 32171) to MEM.