Menstrual hut visits by Dogon women: a hormonal test distinguishes deceit from honest signaling

In humans the interests of males and females may conflict withrespect to the attribution of paternity. If a female has conceivedthrough adultery, or changes mates while she is in early pregnancy,she may protect her reproductive investment by misassigningpaternity. In Mali, West Africa, Dogon males attempt to preventfemale deception by mandating honest advertisement of menstruation(Strassmann, 1992). This advertisement takes place at a menstrualhut where women are on display to all the members of their husband'slineage. Knowledge of the timing of menstruation is pivotalbecause no other physiological event is as useful in paternityassessments. In this article I use hormonal data and a censusof menstrual hut visits to quantify female compliance with themenstrual taboos. The sample includes 93 women who providedurine samples twice weekly for 10 weeks. Analysis of urinarysteroid hormone metabolites (pregnanediol-3-glucuronide andestrone-3-glucuronide) demonstrates that the women went to themenstrual huts during 86% of all menses and, with the exceptionof one woman who may have been spotting, they never went tothe menstrual huts during pregnancy or amenorrhea. Thus themenstrual taboos of the Dogon were effective in eliciting honestsignals of female reproductive status (pregnant, amenorrheic,or cycling). This study is the first to use hormonal data totest the honesty of a human behavior in a nonlaboratory setting.It also establishes the feasibility of urinary enzyme immunoassaysas a tool for studying human reproduction in remote populations.[Behav Ecol 7: 304-315 (1996)]     

Menstruation and marital sex

This paper explores differences in sexual behavior between menstrual and nonmenstrual days, using daily report data from 85 husbands and wives for about 100 days each. Most of the men were in graduate school and the wives had a mean education of 16 years. All couples practiced contraception, but not a hormonal or rhythm method. Husband's desire for intercourse was reduced by 6%, the wife's by 19%. A sexual frustration index is arrived at by taking the % of nonintercourse days on which the respondents nevertheless reported wanting intercourse. Husbands showed a frustration index of 22% on nonmenstrual days and 36% on menstrual days. Wives demonstrated a 15% sexual frustration level when not menstruating, 19% during menstruation. The frustration reduction index (arrived at by counting the number of "want intercourse days" on which orgasm occurred without intercourse), was 17% in husbands on menstrual days, 10% on nonmenstrual days; for wives the index was 7% on menstrual days, 6% on nonmenstrual days. The authors conclude that in the highly educated group studied, intercourse and orgasm are reduced during menstruation, in association with impressively less female desire for intercourse during menstruation. The women respond to a resultant potential increase in male sexual frustration by providing the husbands an increase in noncoital orgasm on menstrual days. However, the wives do not experience an increased intercourse frustration level during menstruation and their heterosexual noncoital orgasm rate is relatively stable throughout the cycle. The different patterns of desire levels for husbands and wives may have a biological base, and the different behavior observed represent a sociological compromise.     

Infertility,abortion, and biotechnology

Patterns of reproductive failure described in humans and other mammals suggest that reproductive failure may in many instances be the result of adaptations evolved to suppress reproduction under temporarily harsh conditions. By suppressing reproduction under such conditions, females are able to conserve their time and energy for reproductive opportunities in which reproduction is most likely to succeed. Such adaptations have been particularly important for female mammals, given (a) the amount of time and energy that reproduction requires, and (b) the degree to which reproductive conditions can vary. The existence of conscious and unconscious mechanisms to suppress reproduction under poor conditions has several implications for obstetric/gynecologic practices. Two implications are discussed with reference to biotechnological advancements in our ability to facilitate conceptions and manage problem pregnancies: (a) potential dangers of sophisticated technologies overriding natural fertility controls; and (b) the need for greater appreciation of the association between psychosocial stress and reproductive failure in the treatment of reproductive problems. Implications for elective abortion practices are discussed as well. The ideas for this paper were developed while the author was a recipient of a Career Development Award from the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation. Dr. Wasser received a B.S. degree of Zoology from Michigan State University in 1975, a Masters of Science in Zoology from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee in 1976, and a Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Washington in 1981. He is co-director of the Animal Behavior Research Unit, a long-term study on the behavioral ecology and reproduction of free-ranging yellow baboons at Mikumi National Park, Tanzania. Dr. Wasser’s primary research focus is on the evolution of reproductive strategies in female mammals. His work includes research on human infertility and abortion. He is also working on the breeding of endangered species in captivity under a Research Development Award from the National Zoological Park of the Smithsonian Institution.     

Effects of 12‐Hour Rotating Shifts on Menstrual Cycles of Photoelectronic Workers in Taiwan

12 h rotating shifts are common in high‐tech industries in Taiwan. The aim of this longitudinal study was to evaluate the effect of the disruption of circadian rhythms by the shift schedule on menstrual cycle length (MCL) and regularity of female workers at an optoelectronic company in Taiwan. We recruited females who worked rotating shifts in a clean room environment as the shift‐work group and female office workers who worked normal business hours as the comparison group. Every participant recorded their MCL for each menstruation cycle up to eight consecutive months prospectively and provided demographic characteristics, reproductive history, and menstrual characteristics. We collected data on 1,135 and 117 menstruation cycles in the shift‐work (n=280) and comparison groups (n=49). Whereas the two groups had similar group means for MCL and number of menstrual bleeding days, the prevalence of menstrual cycle irregularity (cycles<25 or>35 days) was higher in the shift‐work group (p=0.04). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses demonstrated that rotating shift work was an independent predictor of menstrual cycle irregularity (odds ratio=1.71, 95% confidence interval: 1.03–2.88) after adjusting for shift‐work history, employment duration, coffee consumption, and pre‐employment menstrual cycle irregularity. Although further study is required to confirm our findings plus to explore prevention and control measures, our data indicate rotating shift work can increase the risk of MCL irregularity.     

A review: Dietary restrictions on hunter-gatherer women and the implications for fertility and infant mortality

The relatively low reproductive rates of huntergatherer populations have been attributed to high natural mortality, low fertility, and cultural practices such as infanticide and sexual abstention. While we currently lack the data necessary to determine the relative effects of each of these factors on reproduction in any huntergatherer population, an analysis of the relations between cultural practices and reproduction at a more general level can set the stage for further research in huntergatherer societies. This paper reviews and discusses the current literature on specific links between female nutritional health, fertility, and infant mortality. It begins with a consideration of food taboos, one potential source of huntergatherer female nutritional stress. In particular, it is argued that the timing of food taboos on females in many huntergatherer societies often coincides with critical periods in women's reproductive careers. Next, the paper explores the interrelationships between female nutritional health and fertility and infant mortality, using data from modern huntergatherer and agricultural populations. Finally, because data adequate to test specific relationships between patterns of food restrictions and reproduction are not yet available, the paper concludes with a brief discussion of the data necessary for testing these relationships in huntergatherer populations.     

The relevance of reproductive characteristics of zooplankters to experimental studies in outdoor enclosures

The zooplankters Daphnia pulex, Diaptomus siciloides, Diaptomus clavipes and Acanthocyclops vernalis were manipulated in outdoor tanks (1 m³) for long term (six months) experiments. There were distinct patterns of variability among the species which were mostly independent of treatment effects (e.g. fish predation intensity, in one experiment). Diaptomus showed greater within-treatment variability (coefficient of variation CV = 1.2) than did Acanthocyclops and Daphnia (CV = 0.5). The extinction of calanoids in some tanks was partly responsible for this variability. Acanthocyclops and Daphnia never were extinct, but did occasionally colonize (contaminate) tanks to which they had not been intentionally introduced. Colonization and extinction events were related to reproductive characteristics of the species involved, which also determine the minimum critical densities necessary for population establishment and persistence.Manipulation of zooplankters in outdoor enclosures must take into account the species life histories, reproductive mode and behaviour. Species must be inoculated in numbers larger than their minimum critical densities and measures must be taken to avoid contamination with unwanted species. Replication of treatments should be adapted to these conditions and this may be unequal in an experiment dealing with different species.This research was supported by the Joint Doctoral Program in Ecology at San Diego State University and by a U.S. National Science Foundation Doctoral Research Improvement Grant (BSR 84-13983). The relevance of reproductive characteristics of zooplankters to experimental studies in outdour enclorures.This research was supported by the Joint Doctoral Program in Ecology at San Diego State University and by a U.S. National Science Foundation Doctoral Research Improvement Grant (BSR 84-13983). The relevance of reproductive characteristics of zooplankters to experimental studies in outdour enclorures.     

Menstrual cycles continue into advanced old age in the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

A long postreproductive lifespan may distinguish women from all other female primates. A long-held consensus among reproductive scientists has been that our closest living relative, the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), experiences menstrual cycles until death. However, a recent study of biannual assessments of gonadotropins, but lacking observations of menstruation, concluded that menopause occurs in chimpanzees between 35 and 40 yr of age. A separate report, but on wild chimpanzees, documented fertility through the 40-44 age range in all populations studied. These contradictory reports pose questions about differences between wild and captive populations and about assessments of menopause. The present study revisits this controversy by analyzing longitudinal records of anogenital swelling and menstruation in 89 female chimpanzees aged 6 to 59 yr (n = 2386 records on cycle length), monitored for most of their adult lives at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Twenty of these chimpanzees were observed past 39 yr of age; all 20 displayed menstrual cycles beyond this age, as confirmed by at least two observations of menses about 35 days apart. Three of these were older than 50 yr and still displayed menstrual cycles. Only the oldest female appeared menopausal, with cycles of anogenital swelling ceasing 2 yr prior to her death at age 59. Random-effects statistical modeling reveals a slight decrease in cycle length until 20 yr of age and a slight lengthening thereafter. Mean cycle length across the lifespan is 35.4 days. Our findings, based upon actual observations of menstrual cycles, suggest that menopause in the chimpanzee is rare, occurring near the end of the lifespan.     

Examining the social landscapes of alternative reproductive strategies

Social environments are inherently dynamic, often changing depending on the frequency and outcomes of conspecific interactions – they can be simultaneously the targets and agents of selection. Understanding how organisms settle in heterogeneous social environments and the effects this has on reproductive success is vital to our understanding of the selective forces at work in wild populations. From an intensive behavioural and ecological study of territoriality in the polymorphic white‐throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), we demonstrate that males of the two morphs inhabit social niches that correspond to their respective alternative reproductive strategies. By integrating molecular ecology and Geographic Information Systems, we generated continuous, socio‐spatial models of local conspecific density and cuckoldry risk. Our results suggest that the morphs segregate their territories based on socio‐spatial variables, creating a heterogeneous social landscape that matches each behavioural phenotype with a favourable social environment. Specifically, the monogamous tan males tended to settle in low‐density areas that were also low for cuckoldry risk, while the opposite was true for the promiscuous white males. This pattern of socio‐spatial heterogeneity, combined with the social niche partitioning we observed, might act as a social niche polymorphism, and play an important role in maintenance of the alternative reproductive strategies of the white‐throated sparrow. Socio‐spatial factors, similar to those observed in the white‐throated sparrow, may play important roles in the evolution of mating systems in other species, even those with more continuous or cryptic variation.     

Effects of 12-hour rotating shifts on menstrual cycles of photoelectronic workers in Taiwan

12 h rotating shifts are common in high-tech industries in Taiwan. The aim of this longitudinal study was to evaluate the effect of the disruption of circadian rhythms by the shift schedule on menstrual cycle length (MCL) and regularity of female workers at an optoelectronic company in Taiwan. We recruited females who worked rotating shifts in a clean room environment as the shift-work group and female office workers who worked normal business hours as the comparison group. Every participant recorded their MCL for each menstruation cycle up to eight consecutive months prospectively and provided demographic characteristics, reproductive history, and menstrual characteristics. We collected data on 1,135 and 117 menstruation cycles in the shift-work (n = 280) and comparison groups (n = 49). Whereas the two groups had similar group means for MCL and number of menstrual bleeding days, the prevalence of menstrual cycle irregularity (cycles <25 or >35 days) was higher in the shift-work group ( p = 0.04). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses demonstrated that rotating shift work was an independent predictor of menstrual cycle irregularity (odds ratio = 1.71, 95% confidence interval: 1.03-2.88) after adjusting for shift-work history, employment duration, coffee consumption,and pre-employment menstrual cycle irregularity. Although further study is required to confirm our findings plus to explore prevention and control measures, our data indicate rotating shift work can increase the risk of MCL irregularity.     

Dispersal versus climate: Expansion of Fagus and Tsuga into the Upper Great Lakes region

Pollen records for American beech (Fagus grandifolia) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) compiled from 50 sites in Michigan and Wisconsin, USA, show that both species entered the Upper Great Lakes region about 7000 yr B.P., reaching their western and southwestern boundaries between 2000 and 1000 yr B.P. Fagus advanced northward into lower Michigan as a continuous front, except where Lake Michigan posed a geographic barrier. Colonies were established on the far side of the lake after a 1000 year lag, implying that longdistance dispersal across a 100-km wide barrier can occur. The Fagus range may not have been in equilibrium with climate for one or two thousand years before this time, when seeds were dispersed across the lake to Wisconsin. Tsuga seeds may have been dispersed 150 km or more from Ontario to reach Upper Michigan. Scattered colonies were established 6000–7000 yr B.P. on either side of Lake Michigan, which did not pose a significant barrier to this wind-dispersed species, Tsuga spread rapidly over a large region prior to 5000 yr B.P. Subsequent expansion to the west occurred more slowly, and may reflect gradual climatic changes in northern Wisconsin during the second half of the Holocene. Tsuga's range may have been limited by dispersal, rather than climate, for an unknown length of time prior to 5000 yr B.P. During this period Tsuga was expanding its range rapidly. The study shows, however, that it is difficult to devise rigorous tests to distinguish between dispersal limitations and climate as factors limiting range limits in the past.This work has been supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation.This work has been supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation.     

The influence of male presence or absence on the reproductive cycle of celebes black ape females (Macaca nigra)

The effect of male presence on female menstrual cycles was studied in a group of 13 adult female and 3 adult male Celebes black apes (Macaca nigra) living in an outdoor enclosure. When males were absent, all cycling females had longer durations of maximal perineal swelling. Overall cycle length also appeared to be longer when males were absent, but there was no statistically significant increase. The data suggest that male absence results in a longer late follicular stage, perhaps indicating a delay in ovulation. Whereas these findings do imply that male presence may influence female macaque reproductive condition, it is acknowledged that this effect is much weaker than the demonstrated influence of female macaques on male reproductive state.     

Monitoring the reproductive status of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) by measurement of the steroid hormones in fecal samples

The menstrual cycles as well as the pregnancy in female Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) were monitored by measuring the fecal estradiol concentrations and relative amounts of fecal progesterone. Steroids from fecal samples were extracted by using a previously developed simplified two-step method and then measured by radioimmunoassay. We successfully demonstrated that the two-step method is effective and convenient for monitoring the reproductive status of Japanese monkeys.     

Coevolution of female fidelity and male help in populations with alternative reproductive tactics

In socially monogamous species, pair-bonded males often continue to provide care to all offspring in their nests despite some degree of paternity loss due to female extra-pair copulation. Previous theoretical models suggested that females can use their within-pair offspring as ‘hostages'' to blackmail their social mates, so that they continue to provide care to the brood at low levels of cuckoldry. These models, however, rely on the assumption of sufficiently accurate male detection of cuckoldry and the reduction of parental effort in case of suspicion. Therefore, they cannot explain the abundant cases where cuckolded males continue to provide extensive care to the brood. Here we use an analytical population genetics model and an individual-based simulation model to explore the coevolution of female fidelity and male help in populations with two genetically determined alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs): sneakers that achieve paternity solely via extra-pair copulations and bourgeois that form a mating pair and spend some efforts in brood care. We show that when the efficiency of mate guarding is intermediate, the bourgeois males can evolve to ‘specialize'' in providing care by spending more than 90% of time in helping their females while guarding them as much as possible, despite frequent cuckoldry by the sneakers. We also show that when sneakers have tactic-specific adaptations and thus are more competitive than the bourgeois in gaining extra-pair fertilizations, the frequency of sneakers and the degrees of female fidelity and male help can fluctuate in evolutionary cycles. Our theoretical predictions highlight the need for further empirical tests in species with ARTs.     

Geographic contrasts between pre‐ and postzygotic barriers are consistent with reinforcement in Heliconius butterflies

Identifying the traits causing reproductive isolation and the order in which they evolve is fundamental to understanding speciation. Here, we quantify prezygotic and intrinsic postzygotic isolation among allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric populations of the butterflies Heliconius elevatus and Heliconius pardalinus. Sympatric populations from the Amazon (H. elevatus and H. p. butleri) exhibit strong prezygotic isolation and rarely mate in captivity; however, hybrids are fertile. Allopatric populations from the Amazon (H. p. butleri) and Andes (H. p. sergestus) mate freely when brought together in captivity, but the female F1 hybrids are sterile. Parapatric populations (H. elevatus and H. p. sergestus) exhibit both assortative mating and sterility of female F1s. Assortative mating in sympatric populations is consistent with reinforcement in the face of gene flow, where the driving force, selection against hybrids, is due to disruption of mimicry and other ecological traits rather than hybrid sterility. In contrast, the lack of assortative mating and hybrid sterility observed in allopatric populations suggests that geographic isolation enables the evolution of intrinsic postzygotic reproductive isolation. Our results show how the types of reproductive barriers that evolve between species may depend on geography.     

Female menstrual cyclicity and sexual behavior in stumptail Macaques (Macaca arctoides)

The sexual behavior and female reproductive cycles of a captive group of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)were monitored during a 12-month period. The data, consisting of 303 ad libitummounts and copulations and 125 hr of focal-female testing, were analyzed by their frequency of occurrence during the three hormonal phases of the female menstrual cycle. Regularly cycling females exhibited statistically higher frequencies of all sexual behaviors compared to the amenorrheal controls. Contrary to previous reports which indicate no variation in sexual behavior throughout the reproductive cycle in this species, our data show marked increases in copulations during the periovulatory phase. Male dominance rank is associated with sexual behavior only at midcycle.     

Male reproductive strategies in new world primates

Patterns of three variables of reproductive strategies in male New World primates are examined: (i) how males obtain access to potential mates; (ii) how males obtain actual mating opportunities; and (iii) how males affect infant survival and female reproductive success. Male opportunities to associate with females, whether by remaining in their natal groups, dispersing and forming new groups, or dispersing and taking over or joining established groups, are strongly influenced by local population densities and correlate with female reproductive rates and the extent of female reproductive seasonality and synchrony. Differences in male mating success are affected by female accessibility, whether male-male and male-female relationships are hierarchical or egalitarian, and whether female reproduction is seasonally restricted. Patterns of male behavior toward infants, characterized as active assistance, overt interference, or benign tolerance, appear to co-vary with differences in the degree to which males can affect female reproductive rates. These qualitative analyses suggest that the reproductive strategies of male New World primates can be classified along a continuum ranging from conservative to daring depending on whether female reproductive rates are relatively slow or fast and whether reproduction is strongly or weakly linked to seasonal ecological variables. Males adopt the conservative strategy of staying in their natal groups, forfeiting exclusive mating opportunities, and treating infants with tolerance when female reproduction is constrained by ecological factors. Conversely, males adopt the more daring strategy of dispersing and competing when potential payoffs through their ability to affect female reproduction are high.     

Monitoring the reproductive status of female gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) by measuring the steroid hormones in fecal samples

The reproductive status of female gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) was estimated by measuring the sex steroid hormones in fecal samples instead of in blood samples. Fecal samples from female gorillas were used to examine the reliability of this non-invasive assay system, which included the extraction method for estradiol-17β (E₂) and progesterone (P) from fecal samples. Fecal samples from three female gorillas were collected daily for about 55 days, and fecal E₂ and P were assayed to clarify the fluctuation patterns of these steroids in the feces. Fecal sampling from one female was repeated for another 50-day period (starting 75 days after the end of the first observation period) and assayed to confirm if the menstrual cycle of this subject was ovulatory. Although fecal E₂ concentration measurements were quantitative by using this assay system, fecal P concentration measurements were semi-quantitative. Relative amounts of fecal P in fecal samples were estimated by using the values of B/B₀ (bound/total binding in the radioimmunoassay system). Two of the four fluctuation patterns of fecal hormones observed throughout the menstrual cycle for the three female gorillas were typical for normal ovulatory cycles. In the subject observed for two periods, one pattern was typical and the other atypical. The results show that this non-invasive method is simple and practical for monitoring the reproductive status of great apes as well as Old World monkeys.     

VARIABLE SELECTION ALONG A SUCCESSIONAL GRADIENT

Patterns of selection were measured in populations of the perennial grass Danthonia spicata from a successional gradient in northern lower Michigan for a five-year period. Phenotypic variation was found both within and among populations for morphological, reproductive, and life-history traits. Two fitness components were measured: fecundity (total number of spikelets produced) and mortality (number of years an individual lived). Multiple-regression analysis of relative reproductive effort (percentage of culms that flowered), culm length, and leaf length against fitness showed substantial variation in the magnitude and direction of selection among the populations and among the fitness components. When three other reproductive traits were added to the analysis, there were no qualitative changes in estimates of directional selection coefficients, but there were pronounced changes in estimates of stabilizing/disruptive selection components. Patterns of selection were concordant with previously measured genetic changes in reproductive effort along the successional gradient but not concordant with genetic changes in culm length and leaf length. These same patterns were found in comparisons of Michigan and North Carolina populations.     

Population genetic structure of the round goby in Lake Michigan: implications for dispersal of invasive species

Understanding subsequent dispersal of non-native species following introduction is important for predicting the extent and speed of range expansion and is critical for effective management and risk assessment. Post-introduction dispersal may occur naturally or via human transport, but assessing the relative contribution of each is difficult for many organisms. Here, we use data from seven microsatellite markers to study patterns of dispersal and gene flow among 12 pierhead populations of the round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) in Lake Michigan. We find significant population structure among sampling sites within this single Great Lake: (1) numerous populations exhibited significant pairwise F _ST and (2) a Bayesian assignment analysis revealed three distinct genetic clusters, corresponding to different pierhead locations, and genetic admixture between these clusters in the remaining populations. Genetic differentiation (F _ST) is generally related to geographic distance (i.e., isolation by distance), but is periodically interrupted at the scale of Lake Michigan due to gene flow among geographically distant sites. Moreover, average genetic differentiation among populations exhibit a significant, negative correlation with the amount of shipping cargo at ports. Our results, therefore, provide evidence that genetic structure of the round goby in Lake Michigan results from limited natural dispersal with frequent long-distance dispersal through anthropogenic activities such as commercial shipping. Our study suggests that while round gobies can undoubtedly disperse and found new populations through natural dispersal mechanisms, their spread within and among the Great Lakes is likely aided by transport via ships. We, therefore, recommend that ballast-water treatment and management may limit the spread of non-native species within the Great Lakes after the initial introduction in addition to preventing the introduction of non-native species to the Great Lakes.     

Reproductive characteristics of wild female Phayre's leaf monkeys

Understanding female reproductive characteristics is important for assessing fertility, interpreting female behavior, and designing appropriate conservation and captive management plans. In primate species lacking morphological signs of receptivity, such as most colobines, determination of reproductive parameters depends on the analysis of reproductive hormones. Here, we use fecal hormone analysis to characterize cycle patterns (N=6 females) and gestation length (N=7 females) in a group of wild Phayre's leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus phayrei crepusculus) in Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. We found that both fecal estrogen (fE) and progestin (fP) levels showed clear biological patterns indicative of ovulation and conception. However, because fP patterns were inadequate in determining the end of the luteal phase, we used fE rather than fP patterns to delineate menstrual cycle parameters. We found a mean cycle length of 28.4 days (N=10), with follicular and luteal phases of 15.4 (N=10) and 12.5 days (N=14), respectively. On average, females underwent 3.57 (N=7) cycles until conception. Average gestation length was 205.3 days (N=7), with fE levels increasing over the course of pregnancy. Overall, the reproductive characteristics found for Phayre's leaf monkeys were consistent with results for other colobine species, suggesting that fecal hormone monitoring, particularly for fE metabolites, can provide useful reproductive information for this species. Am. J. Primatol. 72:1073–1081, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.