Classical biological control of Aphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphididae) with Neozygites fresenii (Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae) in California cotton

In August 1994 and 1995 classical biological control releases were made in cotton in the San Joaquin Valley, California, with an Arkansas strain of the entomopathogenic fungus, Neozygites fresenii, a pathogen of the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii. Pre-release samples in both years indicated that N. fresenii was not naturally present in A. gossypii populations in the San Joaquin Valley. Two release methods were compared: dried N. fresenii-infected cotton aphid “cadavers” and chamber inoculation of A. gossypii. Both methods were successful in introducing N. fresenii to cotton aphids in California; however, higher prevalence of fungal infection resulted with the cadaver treatments. N. fresenii persisted and spread in the aphid population until early October 1994 and late September 1995. The highest mean percentage infection in the cadaver treatment in 1994 reached a level (14%) considered imminent for epizootics (12–15%). The use of predator exclusion cages resulted in higher N. fresenii prevalences.     

Infection of Sentinel Cotton Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) by Aerial Conidia ofNeozygites fresenii(Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae)

Uninfected adultAphis gossypii(Homoptera: Aphididae) apterae (sentinel aphids) on cotton leaves were exposed for 8 h to the air over a commercial cotton field in Louisiana during the night of 1–2 July 1995. At 0015 h there were 90,437 primary conidia/m³air of the fungusNeozygites fresenii(Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae) at the midfield position as determined from Rotorod samples. Forty-eight percent (n = 106) of the sentinel aphids exposed for 8 h at midfield were infected by aerial conidia ofN. fresenii.Exposure of sentinel aphids outside the cotton field, at 10 and 100 m downwind and 10 m upwind, resulted in 34.8% (n = 131), 24.0% (n = 129), and 17.4% (n = 146) infected aphids, respectively. These data demonstrate that wind-dispersed aerial conidia ofN. freseniiare infective and rapidly and efficiently disperse the pathogen throughout aphid populations within and between fields.     

Effect of fungicide application on activity of Neozygites fresenii (Entomophthorales: Neozygitacaea) and cotton aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) suppression

The development of resistance in aphid populations highlights the importance of biological control as a pest management tactic. Four treatments were evaluated to determine the effects of pesticides on the population dynamics of Aphis gossypii Glover and Neozygites fresenii (Nowakowski) Batko: (1) weekly applications of the insecticide imidacloprid (Provado 1.6 F); (2) weekly applications of the fungicide chlorothalonil (Bravo 720); (3) applications of imidacloprid (Provado 1.6 F) when aphid densities exceeded 30 aphids per leaf, and (4) untreated control. Differences in aphid density among the four treatments were shown only to be significant during the 1997 growing season; however, aphid densities were greater in the chlorothalonil treatment than in the other treatments during each growing season. Percentage of N. fresenii-killed aphids was most often highest in the chlorothalonil treatment as well. The fungal epizootic caused by N. fresenii was delayed approximately 1 wk in the chlorothalonil treatment when compared with the other treatments. This delay allowed the aphids to temporarily escape suppression by the fungus and to continue to increase in density until the density-dependent effects of the epizootic overwhelmed the aphid population. N. fresenii also appeared to persist in the system when imidacloprid was in use and does appear responsible for initial aphid reductions. Treatment did not appear to have a large influence on yield outcome. Yield was variable from year to year and from location to location.     

不同生物型棉蚜对夏寄主葫芦科作物的选择

于2008、2009年连续两年采用模拟田间自然扩散法,系统地研究了棉花型棉蚜和甜瓜型棉蚜有翅蚜对11种夏寄主的选择性.结果表明,棉花型棉蚜对杂交葫芦、小西葫芦表现出强选择性及适应性,而对香瓜、黄瓜、西瓜及甜瓜均不选择,或即使选择其若蚜在其上也不能存活;甜瓜型棉蚜对甜瓜、香瓜、南瓜、黄西葫芦、大西葫芦、杂交葫芦等均表现较强选择性,而对棉花及小西葫芦表现不选择.但是,甜瓜型棉蚜在小西葫芦上也能产若蚜并存活.从而证明小西葫芦是两种寄主型棉蚜的共同寄主,有可能成为两者相互转换的桥梁寄主.     

The effect of host plants on Tetranychus evansi, Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) and on their fungal pathogen Neozygites floridana (Entomophthorales: Neozygitaceae)

In a series of tritrophic-level interaction experiments, the effect of selected host plants of the spider mites, Tetranychus evansi and Tetranychus urticae, on Neozygites floridana was studied by evaluating the attachment of capilliconidia, presence of hyphal bodies in the infected mites, mortality from fungal infection, mummification and sporulation from fungus-killed mite cadavers. Host plants tested for T. evansi were tomato, cherry tomato, eggplant, nightshade, and pepper while host plants tested for T. urticae were strawberry, jack bean, cotton and Gerbera. Oviposition rate of the mites on each plant was determined to infer host plant suitability while host-switching determined antibiosis effect on fungal activity. T. evansi had a high oviposition on eggplant, tomato and nightshade but not on cherry tomato and pepper. T. urticae on jack bean resulted in a higher oviposition than on strawberry, cotton and Gerbera. Attachment of capilliconidia to the T. evansi body, presence of hyphal bodies in infected T. evansi and mortality from fungal infection were significantly higher on pepper, nightshade and tomato. The highest level of T. evansi mummification was observed on tomato. T. evansi cadavers from tomato and eggplant produced more primary conidia than those from cherry tomato, nightshade and pepper. Switching N. floridana infected T. evansi from one of five Solanaceous host plants to tomato had no prominent effect on N. floridana performance. For T. urticae, strawberry and jack bean provided the best N. floridana performance when considering all measured parameters. Strawberry also had the highest primary conidia production. This study shows that performance of N. floridana can vary with host plants and may be an important factor for the development of N. floridana epizootics.     

Functional response of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to Aphis gossypii Glover (Homoptera: Aphididae) in the Laboratory

Stage specific functional response of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) to varying densities of Aphis gossypii Glover was examined in a simplified cucumber leaf arena under laboratory conditions. All stages of H. axyridis were isolated individually for 24 h with different prey densities at 25 °C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h. The number of prey consumed by the predator was checked at 3, 6, 12, and 24 h. All stages of H. axyridis showed a Type II functional response. Based on the random predator equation, estimated attack rates of H. axyridis at 24 h were 0.0037, 0.0442, 0.3590, 0.3228, and 0.1456, and estimated handling times were 4.1001, 2.4575, 0.7500, 0.2132, and 0.1708 h for the first, second, third, and fourth instars, and female adult, respectively.     

Virulence of Hypocreales fungi to pecan aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in the laboratory

There is need for efficacious biocontrol agents for aphids in commercial orchards. As a preliminary step to this end we determined the virulence of several Hypocreales fungi to pecan aphids. In the first experiment we tested the virulence of Isaria fumosorosea (ARSEF 3581) blastospores to three pecan aphids Monellia caryella, Melanocallis caryaefoliae, and Monelliopsis pecanis under laboratory conditions. Rates of 1 × 10⁷ or 1 × 10⁸ spores per ml were applied in 2 ml via a spray tower to 90 mm Petri dishes containing 10 aphids each. Mortality and mycosis were determined after 24, 48 and 72 h. Treatment effects were observed by 48 h post-application, and by 72 h the higher application rate caused >90% mortality and mycosis in M. caryella and M. caryaefoliae, whereas <70% was observed in M. pecanis.We conducted two subsequent experiments (Experiments 2 and 3), using the same methodology, to compare the virulence of several Hypocreales species and strains against the aphid of primary economic concern to most pecan growers, M. caryaefoliae. In Experiment 2, we compared blastospores and conidia of two I. fumosorosea strains (ARSEF 3581 and ATCC 20874 [= strain 97]). The blastospores of ARSEF 3581 and conidia of ATCC 20874 showed higher virulence than other treatments and thus were included in Experiment 3, which also compared the virulence of conidia of Beauveria bassiana (GHA strain) and Metarhizium anisopliae (F52 strain). Results in Experiment 3 indicated the highest virulence in I. fumosorosea 3581 blastospores and M. anisopliae (F52) followed by I. fumosorosea (20874) conidia. The detection of pathogenicity to pecan aphids establishes the potential for commercial usage and additional study. Results reported here will narrow treatments to test in future greenhouse and field trials.     

The role of resting spores in the survival of the mite-pathogenic fungus Neozygites floridana from Mononychellus tanajoa during dry periods in Brazil

Survival of pathogens during long periods of unfavorable conditions can be critical to their ecology and to their use in biological control. In northeastern Brazil, the mite pathogen Neozygites floridana must survive hot and dry conditions between wet seasons when it infects the cassava green mite Mononychellus tanajoa. We report on large numbers of mite cadavers bearing resting spores towards the end of epizootics in mid-1995. High within-leaf variability indicated that local factors may be important in determining resting spore formation. These spores remain in the host cadaver on a leaf until the cadaver breaks up, whereupon the spores fall freely to the soil, there to remain dormant. Laboratory simulation of field conditions led to ca. 25% of mycosed individuals bearing resting spores. Mummies (without resting spores) kept in hot and dry conditions showed little or no viability within 2 months, implying no role for survival over extended dry periods. It is proposed that resting spores form the principal means by which this pathogen survives the dry season in the study area. This has implications for its introduction to new areas in classical biological control.     

Effects of beauvericin on Schizaphis graminum (Aphididae)

The effects of beauvericin, a toxic fungal metabolite common contaminant of maize and wheat, on aphid fitness were studied in three consecutive generations of females. Aphids were reared on wheat leaves inserted into a sandy substratum wetted with a solution of beauvericin. Ingestion of this solution through leaves did not significantly decrease the lifespan of females of all generations as compared to controls. However, the mean number of offspring from the third generation of treated females was significantly smaller than those in controls. Furthermore, treated second and third generation females produced a greater number of abortive embryos. Histological analysis revealed abundant DAPI and Feulgen positive material in the cytoplasm of some bacteriocytes of treated third generation females. This material was attributed to the endosymbionts of bacteriocytes. Tests by contact were also carried out and revealed a significantly lower survival of treated first instar aphids as compared to controls 18h after the start of the trial.     

Altered behavior and distribution of pea aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Homoptera: Aphididae), infected with Pandora neoaphidis (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales)

The distribution and mobility of infected aphid hosts can have a great effect on the ability of a pathogen to spread throughout a population. The distribution of dead and living pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) infected with Pandora neoaphidis was compared with that of their healthy conspecifics. Infected aphids were significantly more likely to be found on the undersides of alfalfa leaves and off of the plants than were healthy aphids. These two shifts in microhabitat location have potential costs and benefits for both the host and the pathogen.     

Effect of storage temperature on survival and infectivity of Steinernema rarum (OLI strain) (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae)

Nematode strains of the entomopathogenic family Steinernematidae differ in their ability to infect insects at different temperatures. Survival and infectivity of infective juveniles (IJs) of Steinernema rarum (OLI) were studied after their storage at 23 ± 2 °C and at 5 ± 1 °C. Survival at 23 ± 2 °C was always above 95%. At 5 ± 1 °C, survival decreased at week 5, but infectivity did the same after week 2. Unlike other steinernematids, both infectivity and survival of IJs would be higher for S. rarum (OLI) when stored at 23 ± 2 °C.     

Effects of long-term storage on the stability of OpMNPV DNA contained in TM Biocontrol-1

Orgyia pseudotsugata multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (OpMNPV) DNA was extracted from samples representing 10 lots of TM Biocontrol-1 stored at -10 degrees C for 5-15 years and digested with the restriction enzymes BglII, PstI, and SalI. DNA from the OpMNPV virus strain (MEM-75-STANDARD) used to produce the TM Biocontrol-1 lots was also extracted and digested. No restriction fragment length polymorphisms were observed in any of the samples and there was no evidence of DNA degradation. This indicates that long-term cold storage of TM Biocontrol-1 had no adverse effect on the quality of the OpMNPV DNA. In addition to the expected >23 kb OpMNPV DNA, extracts from lots 4a, 5b, and 6 contained 10 additional nucleic acid segments, ranging in size from 0.9 to 4.2 kb. The electrophoretic profile of these segments was characteristic of O. pseudotsugata cypovirus (OpCPV). RNase A/DNase I treatment showed that the nucleic acid contaminants were composed of RNA, suggesting that lots 4a, 5b, and 6 contained OpCPV as well as OpMNPV. Bioassay results have shown that there is a decrease in efficacy of stored TM-biocontrol-1, but this did not appear to be directly correlated with the length of time in storage.     

Kaolin potential for the integrated management of Aphis gossypii Glov. (Homoptera: Aphididae) on cotton

Kaolin-based particle film has been developed in the United States for use in agriculture as crop protectant. This work is aimed to determine the optimal kaolin concentration for use against Aphis gossypii, the most damaging sucking insect of cotton in Benin, West Africa. Following kaolin concentrations have been tested in four different experiments: 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6% and 8%. The effect of kaolin is tested by recording the population dynamics of A. gossypii on cotton after spraying. Results showed that the solution containing 5% of kaolin has significantly reduced aphids' number. This concentration corresponds to a maximum of 18 kg of kaolin per hectare for the entire season when ultra low volume sprayer is used. Higher kaolin concentrations have left a large deposit of kaolin particle on cotton leaves thus handicapping chlorophyll synthesis and the proper growth and development of the plants. To obtain encouraging results, an adequate application method that provides a full and continuous coverage of the plants with kaolin particle film should be used. We suggest conducting trials on this product in practical cotton production conditions in West Africa to assess its potentiality as integrated pest management (IPM) component.     

The natural occurrence of Pandora heteropterae (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) infecting Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera: Miridae)

An unknown fungal pathogen was recovered from Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) during a survey of parasitic and pathogenic natural enemies conducted in Franklin County, Arkansas. The pathogen was identified as Pandora heteropterae (Ba?azy) Keller based on characteristics of the morphology, as well as growth and sporulation on hosts. The fungus infected 11 of the 3405 (0.32%) wild L. lineolaris collected. In a laboratory host-range bioassay, five of seven hemipteran species from the families Miridae, Coreidae, Lygaeidae, and Pentatomidae were successfully infected. P. heteropterae was previously reported only once, from an unidentified host species in Poland. Here we describe the morphology and growth of P. heteropterae and discuss its potential impact on L. lineolaris in the field.     

Reproductive compatibility and genetic variation between two strains of Aphelinus albipodus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a parasitoid of the soybean aphid, Aphis glycines (Homoptera: Aphididae)

Aphelinus albipodus Hayat and Fatima is a potential biological control agent of the soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, which is a newly introduced soybean pest in the United States. We compared the reproductive compatibility and molecular genetic variation between two geographic strains of A. albipodus. One strain was collected from soybean aphids in Japan and the other recovered from Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko), in the western U.S., populations of which were established with parasitoids imported from Eurasia. We present results of crossing experiments between the two strains, genetic differences based on RAPD-PCR markers, rDNA ITS1 and ITS2 gene sequences, and presence of Wolbachia in the two strains using PCR amplification of the wsp gene. We found no reduction in the production of females in reciprocal crosses between strains, but a significant reduction in fecundity when F₁ females stemming from one of the reciprocal crosses were backcrossed to males from either source. The two strains differed by 3.4% in the rDNA ITS1 sequence and by presence/absence of one RAPD-PCR marker from a total of 20 RAPD primers screened, but their rDNA ITS2 sequences were identical. We used restriction enzyme analysis to separate the strains by differential digestion of the ITS1 PCR product. Wolbachia was present in 100% of males and females of both strains of A. albipodus.     

不同类型品种棉花上棉蚜适生性及种群动态

通过田间调查、室内网罩盆栽苗测定选择性等方法,考察了常规棉（泗棉3号,石远321）、杂交抗虫棉（辽棉19号,鲁棉研18号）、转单价基因抗虫棉（国抗12号,中棉所32）和转双价抗虫棉（SGK321,中棉所41）4种类型8个品种棉花上棉蚜的适生性及种群动态。结果表明： 棉蚜在各棉花品种上的种群动态有明显差异（P<0.05）,单株蚜量以转单价基因抗虫棉中棉32上最高,常规棉泗棉3号上最低,分别为297.81头/株和76.88头/株。棉蚜对4种类型棉花品种的选择性有明显差异（P<0.05）,其中对转单价基因抗虫棉有很强的选择性。根据棉蚜实验种群的参数判断,其在不同品种棉花上的生长发育、存活及繁殖存在显著差异： 若虫发育历期常规棉石远321上最长（6.46天）,双价棉中棉所41上最短（5.75天）; 存活率转单价基因抗虫棉中棉32上最高（88.21%）,双价棉SGK321上最低（76.46%）; 单雌产蚜量杂交抗虫棉辽棉19上最大（44.48头）,双价棉SGK321上最小（33.51头）; 内禀增长率转单价基因抗虫棉中棉32上最高（0.3695）,双价棉中棉所41上最低（0.3389）。综合评价,棉蚜的生存和繁殖适合性在转单价基因抗虫棉上最高,在双价棉上最低。     

Suitability of Aphis fabae, Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Aleyrodes proletella (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) as prey for Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

The suitability of Aphis fabae Scopoli, Myzus persicae Sulzer and Aleyrodes proletella L. as food sources for Coccinella undecimpunctata L. was evaluated by studying the impact of prey consumption on the predator’s population growth parameters and feeding parameters. Unlike A. proletella, A. fabae and M. persicae supported the development and reproduction of C. undecimpunctata. A. fabae and M. persicae were considered to be essential prey, whereas A. proletella was considered to be an alternative prey. Aphid species showed different degrees of suitability: M. persicae significantly decreased the pre-oviposition period and increased adult longevity, fecundity and fertility compared with A. fabae. Moreover, A. fabae represents a suitable diet for larval development, but is not a suitable food source for adult reproduction. The predator’s population growth parameters, R₀, r_m and λ were increased with M. persicae, whereas T decreased. We found that the 4th instar larvae were the most voracious, particularly when fed on M. persicae; nevertheless, with this prey daily weight gain and feeding efficiency of 4th instar larvae were similar to that of individuals fed with A. fabae.     

Copper chelating anti-inflammatory agents; N1-(2-aminoethyl)-N2-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-ethane-1,2-diamine and N-(2-(2-aminoethylamino)ethyl)picolinamide: an in vitro and in vivo study

An in vitro and in vivo study of some copper chelating anti-inflammatory agents for alleviation of inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has been conducted. Two copper chelating agents, N(1)-(2-aminoethyl)-N(2)-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine ([555-N]) and N-(2-(2-aminoethylamino)ethyl)picolinamide ([H(555)-N]) have been synthesized as their hydrochloride salt; their protonation constants and formation constants with Cu(II), Zn(II) and Ca(II) determined by glass electrode potentiometry at 298K and an ionic strength of 0.15M. Cu(II) formed stable complexes at physiological pH while the in vivo competitors, Zn(II) and Ca(II) formed weak complexes with both chelating agents. Both [555-N] and [H(555)-N] showed better selectivity for Cu(II) than for Zn(II) and Ca(II). Electronic spectra for species formed at physiological pH suggest a square planar geometry. Speciation calculations using a blood plasma model predicted that these copper chelating agents are able to mobilize Cu(II) in vivo, while bio-distribution studies of their (64)Cu(II)-labelled complexes at physiological pH showed tissue accumulation and retention indicating an encouraging biological half life.     

高温胁迫及其持续时间对棉蚜死亡和繁殖的影响

为探索高温胁迫对棉蚜的影响,室内采用叶子圆片培养基饲养棉蚜的方法,研究不同温度(32,34,36,38,40℃)、不同处理时间(1,2,4,6h)对棉蚜死亡和繁殖的影响.结果表明:棉蚜每日死亡率可用互补重对数模型较好地拟合.随着温度的升高和持续天数的延长,棉蚜累计死亡率呈上升趋势,38 ℃条件下其累计死亡率明显迅速上升.棉蚜半数致死温度随着每天高温处理时间的增加和高温持续天数的延长而降低,且第1-2天下降明显.棉蚜繁殖率随着温度的升高呈下降趋势,每天处理时间不同其繁殖率规律不同,但均是在38℃时下降最多.38℃可能是棉蚜耐高温能力的拐点.研究结果为提高棉蚜种群预测准确性、科学决策最佳化学防治时间提供依据.