SAMHD1 Joins the red Queen's court

The host restriction factor SAMHD1 hinders lentiviral infection of myeloid cells, a function counteracted by the viral protein Vpx. Two papers in this issue of Cell Host & Microbe document the genetic conflict between SAMHD1 and the Vpr/Vpx proteins, which has subjected SAMHD1 to intense periods of diversifying selection through primate evolution.     

SAMHD1蛋白抗病毒作用机制研究的新进展

作为新发现的抗病毒因子,SAMHD1蛋白是近年来分子生物学界研究的热点,但是其抗病毒作用机制尚不明确。已经报道的可能的抗病毒作用机制包括d NTP水解酶活性和T592位点的磷酸化状态。随着近两年来研究的不断发展,SAMHD1蛋白的RNA酶活性和维持基因组稳定性的重要作用相继被发现。与此同时,SAMHD1蛋白的多聚体结构也受到了广泛的关注,从最初得到的二聚体晶体,到最近证实了GTP作为激活剂才能形成有抗病毒活性的同源四聚体,SAMHD1蛋白的多聚体结构及形成机制都得到了新的阐释。综合各种已知的生物学功能以及结构方面的信息,结合最新发表的研究成果,深入而全面地分析了SAMHD1蛋白复杂的抗病毒作用机制。     

SAMHD1 protects cancer cells from various nucleoside-based antimetabolites

Recently, we demonstrated that sterile α motif and HD domain containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) is a major barrier in acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) cells to the cytotoxicity of cytarabine (ara-C), the most important drug in AML treatment. Ara-C is intracellularly converted by the canonical dNTP synthesis pathway to ara-CTP, which serves as a substrate but not an allosteric activator of SAMHD1. Using an AML mouse model, we show here that wild type but not catalytically inactive SAMHD1 reduces ara-C treatment efficacy in vivo. Expanding the clinically relevant substrates of SAMHD1, we demonstrate that THP-1 CRISPR/Cas9 cells lacking a functional SAMHD1 gene showed increased sensitivity to the antimetabolites nelarabine, fludarabine, decitabine, vidarabine, clofarabine, and trifluridine. Within this Extra View, we discuss and build upon both these and our previously reported findings, and propose SAMHD1 is likely active against a variety of nucleoside analog antimetabolites present in anti-cancer chemotherapies. Thus, SAMHD1 may constitute a promising target to improve a wide range of therapies for both hematological and non-haematological malignancies.     

SAMHD1 Inhibits LINE-1 Retrotransposition by Promoting Stress Granule Formation

The SAM domain and HD domain containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) inhibits retroviruses, DNA viruses and long interspersed element 1 (LINE-1). Given that in dividing cells, SAMHD1 loses its antiviral function yet still potently restricts LINE-1, we propose that, instead of blocking viral DNA synthesis by virtue of its dNTP triphosphohydrolase activity, SAMHD1 may exploit a different mechanism to control LINE-1. Here, we report a new activity of SAMHD1 in promoting cellular stress granule assembly, which correlates with increased phosphorylation of eIF2α and diminished eIF4A/eIF4G interaction. This function of SAMHD1 enhances sequestration of LINE-1 RNP in stress granules and consequent blockade to LINE-1 retrotransposition. In support of this new mechanism of action, depletion of stress granule marker proteins G3BP1 or TIA1 abrogates stress granule formation and overcomes SAMHD1 inhibition of LINE-1. Together, these data reveal a new mechanism for SAMHD1 to control LINE-1 by activating cellular stress granule pathway.     

SAMHD1抗艾滋病病毒作用研究进展

SAMHD1蛋白全称为不育-α-基序结构域(SAM域)和组氨酸/天冬氨酸残基双联体结构域(HD域)包涵蛋白1,是由真核生物SAMHD1基因编码的蛋白质。研究表明SAMHD1蛋白对机体固有免疫有调控作用,它能够明显上调抗病毒免疫应答,介导由干扰素引起的炎症反应,参与宿主对入侵病毒的防御体系。早期的研究主要集中在其基因突变引起的Aicardi-Goutières综合征(AGS),最新研究发现SAMHD1作为一种核酸水解酶,具有代谢耗竭髓样细胞和树突状细胞内dNTP池从而抑制I型艾滋病病毒(Human immunodeficiency virus,HIV-1)cDNA合成的功能。而HIV-2和猴免疫缺陷病毒(SIVsm/mac)辅助基因编码的Vpx蛋白则能拮抗SAMHD1对病毒复制的抑制作用。近年来,有关SAMHD1蛋白的功能及其抗病毒作用机制的研究进展迅速,本文主要对此加以综述。     

具有广泛抗病毒活性的SAMHD1蛋白的研究进展

SAMHD1蛋白是2011年首次被认定为一种独特的天然抗病毒因子,它主要在树突状细胞、巨噬细胞等髓系细胞中表达。它通过降解细胞内dNTPs的水平,使细胞内的dNTPs的水平低于病毒复制所需的水平,从而抑制髓系细胞中反转录病毒和DNA病毒的复制。HIV-2产生的病毒蛋白X(Vpx)可将泛素连接酶与SAMHD1相结合,使SAMHD1分子最后被蛋白酶体降解。最近还发现SAMHD1蛋白活性受多种因子影响,具有调节肿瘤细胞中LINE-1活性的功能。结合最新研究成果对SAMHD1的结构、功能、抗病毒机制以及影响因子进行综述。     

Restricting HIV the SAMHD1 way: through nucleotide starvation

HIV replication is limited by cellular restriction factors, such as APOBEC and tetherin, which themselves are counteracted by viral proteins. SAMHD1 was recently identified as a novel HIV restriction factor in myeloid cells, and was shown to be blocked by the lentiviral protein Vpx. SAMHD1 limits viral replication through an original mechanism: it hydrolyses intracellular dNTPs in non-cycling cells, thus decreasing the amount of these key substrates, which are required for viral DNA synthesis. In this Progress article, we describe how SAMHD1 regulates the pool of intracellular nucleotides to control HIV replication and the innate immune response.     

CyclinA2-Cyclin-dependent Kinase Regulates SAMHD1 Protein Phosphohydrolase Domain

SAMHD1 is a nuclear deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase that contributes to the control of cellular deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pool sizes through dNTP hydrolysis and modulates the innate immune response to viruses. CyclinA2-CDK1/2 phosphorylates SAMHD1 at Thr-592, but how this modification controls SAMHD1 functions in proliferating cells is not known. Here, we show that SAMHD1 levels remain relatively unchanged during the cell division cycle in primary human T lymphocytes and in monocytic cell lines. Inactivation of the bipartite cyclinA2-CDK-binding site in the SAMHD1 C terminus described herein abolished SAMHD1 phosphorylation on Thr-592 during S and G₂ phases thus interfering with DNA replication and progression of cells through S phase. The effects exerted by Thr-592 phosphorylation-defective SAMHD1 mutants were associated with activation of DNA damage checkpoint and depletion of dNTP concentrations to levels lower than those seen upon expression of wild type SAMHD1 protein. These disruptive effects were relieved by either mutation of the catalytic residues of the SAMHD1 phosphohydrolase domain or by a Thr-592 phosphomimetic mutation, thus linking the Thr-592 phosphorylation state to the control of SAMHD1 dNTPase activity. Our findings support a model in which phosphorylation of Thr-592 by cyclinA2-CDK down-modulates, but does not inactivate, SAMHD1 dNTPase in S phase, thereby fine-tuning SAMHD1 control of dNTP levels during DNA replication.     

SAMHD1 restricts HIV-1 reverse transcription in quiescent CD4+ T-cells

Background

HIV-1 infection is associated with profound dysfunction of myeloid dendritic cells, for reasons that remain ill-defined. Soluble HLA class I molecules can have important inhibitory effects on T cells and NK cells, but may also contribute to reduced functional properties of professional antigen-presenting cells. Here, we investigated the expression of soluble HLA class I isoforms during HIV-1 infection and assessed their functional impact on antigen-presenting characteristics of dendritic cells.

Results

Soluble HLA class I molecules were highly upregulated in progressive HIV-1 infection as determined by quantitative Western blots. This was associated with strong increases of intracellular expression of HLA class I isoforms in dendritic cells and monocytes. Using mixed lymphocyte reactions, we found that soluble HLA class I molecules effectively inhibited the antigen-presenting properties of dendritic cells, however, there was no significant influence of HLA class I molecules on the cytokine-secretion properties of these cells. The immunomodulatory effects of soluble HLA class I molecules were mediated by interactions with inhibitory myelomonocytic MHC class I receptors from the Leukocyte Immunoglobulin Like Receptor (LILR) family.

Conclusions

During progressive HIV-1 infection, soluble HLA class I molecules can contribute to systemic immune dysfunction by inhibiting the antigen-presenting properties of myeloid dendritic cells through interactions with inhibitory myelomonocytic HLA class I receptors.