Chimeric Plant Virus Particles Administered Nasally or Orally Induce Systemic and Mucosal Immune Responses in Mice

The humoral immune responses to the D2 peptide of fibronectin-binding protein B (FnBP) of Staphylococcus aureus, expressed on the plant virus cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), were evaluated after mucosal delivery to mice. Intranasal immunization of these chimeric virus particles (CVPs), either alone or in the presence of ISCOM matrix, primed CPMV-specific T cells and generated high titers of CPMV- and FnBP-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) in sera. Furthermore, CPMV- and FnBP-specific IgA and IgG could also be detected in the bronchial, intestinal, and vaginal lavage fluids, highlighting the ability of CVPs to generate antibody at distant mucosal sites. IgG2a and IgG2b were the dominant IgG subclasses in sera to both CPMV and FnBP, demonstrating a bias in the response toward the T helper 1 type. The sera completely inhibited the binding of human fibronectin to the S. aureus FnBP. Oral immunization of the CVPs also generated CPMV- and FnBP-specific serum IgG; however, these titers were significantly lower and more variable than those generated by the intranasal route, and FnBP-specific intestinal IgA was undetectable. Neither the ISCOM matrix nor cholera toxin enhanced these responses. These studies demonstrate for the first time that recombinant plant viruses have potential as mucosal vaccines without the requirement for adjuvant and that the nasal route is most effective for the delivery of these nonreplicating particles.Replicating vaccines such as live-attenuated bacterial (13) and virus (36, 40, 45) vaccines, as well as naked DNA vaccines (31), induce stronger and longer-lasting immune responses than conventional killed-subunit vaccines and also elicit protective cell-mediated immunity, often without the need for adjuvant. There are however, safety concerns over the use of these vaccines (24, 49), where persistence or reversion to virulence of the live vaccine strains and integration of the naked DNA vaccine into the host chromosome are of major concern. Recent technological advances, such as the use of more-effective adjuvants for both mucosal and systemic delivery (12, 16), liposome and ISCOM encapsulation of proteins and peptides (3, 19, 27), multiple antigenic peptides (35), and virus-like particles (VLPs) (1), have led to the development of more-effective subunit vaccines. To circumvent the safety concerns of replicating vaccines and to avoid the need for peptide synthesis and chemical coupling to a carrier such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin, we have been examining the utility of the plant virus cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) as a carrier of peptides for immune recognition. CPMV is composed of 2 subunits, the small (S) and large (L) coat proteins, of which there are 60 copies of each per virus particle (46). Foreign peptides up to 37 amino acids in length can be expressed on either the L or S proteins; hence, 60 to 120 copies of a peptide can be displayed on a single virus particle (4b, 34). A peptide from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) gp41 glycoprotein is highly immunogenic when displayed on CPMV, eliciting high titers of HIV neutralizing antibodies (28, 29). Furthermore, a peptide derived from the VP2 protein of canine parvovirus (CPV) expressed on CPMV is immunogenic when administered to mink and subsequently protected the mink from a lethal challenge with the CPV-related mink enteritis virus (10).Most infectious viral and bacterial diseases involve colonization or invasion through mucosal surfaces by the pathogen, and hence it is important to develop vaccines that induce strong protective mucosal immune responses as a first line of defense. Where the organism, such as Vibrio cholerae and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, is restricted to the mucosa, strong mucosal immunity is often sufficient. However, when the organism disseminates from the mucosa into the bloodstream, a strong systemic response is also required to engender sterile immunity. Hence, the ideal mucosal vaccine should generate local immune responses at mucosal surfaces but also elicit generalized vaccine-specific immunity in the systemic lymphoid organs. The potential of CPMV-based vaccines for mucosal vaccination has not previously been determined.Oral immunization with particulate antigens, especially when presented as viable organisms, which can colonize the mucosa better than killed organisms, is effective at inducing local and generalized secretory and systemic immune responses (5, 43). However, the acidic pH and the presence of degradative enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract mean that when nonreplicating antigens are used, high concentrations are often required to elicit high levels of immunity (6). Another way to elicit mucosal immunity but circumvent the problems of oral immunization is to vaccinate via the intranasal route (2). Intranasal immunization requires up to 10-fold less immunogen for effective immunization and avoids the problems of low pH. Live vaccines (15, 37), virus-like particles (4, 25, 32), and synthetic peptides (17, 33, 44) in the absence of adjuvant have been shown to stimulate strong immunity when administered by this route. Furthermore, stimulation of the nasal mucosa, like stimulation of the intestinal mucosa, has been shown to be effective at generating protective immunity at distant mucosal sites (reviewed in reference 2).To assess the potential of CVPs as mucosal vaccines, mice were immunized intranasally or orally with CPMV expressing a peptide derived from the fibronectin-binding protein B (FnBP) D2 motif of Staphylococcus aureus (14, 42). The three fibronectin-binding domains, termed D1, D2, and D3, of FnBP have been shown to be immunogenic in mice and rats (7, 41). The CVPs were shown to be more immunogenic when administered (without adjuvant) via the intranasal route than when administered by the oral route, generating high titers of D2-specific antibody in serum and mucosa, and the serum antibody inhibited fibronectin binding to FnBP.     

Surface Alterations of Cells Carrying RNA Tumour Virus Genetic Information

CELLS transformed by the DNA tumour viruses, polyoma virus and SV40, are agglutinated by lectins such as wheat germ agglutinin¹, concanavalin A (Con A)² and soybean agglutinin³. Agglutination in these cases presumably reflects changes in the cell surface related to the transformed properties of the cell; studies with a temperature-dependent mutant of polyoma virus has shown that cell surface changes are controlled by viral genes⁴. Here we describe experiments in which we investigated the agglutinability of cells transformed by RNA tumour viruses. One recent report had suggested that cells transformed by RNA tumour viruses were not specifically agglutinated⁵, whereas a second more recent report claimed the specific agglutination of cells transformed by RSV⁶. We find that transformed rat, mouse and cat cells that replicate the sarcoma-leukaemia virus complex of murine (MSV) and feline (FeSV) origin are strongly agglutinated by Con A, but mouse and human cells that replicate the murine and feline leukaemia virus components alone are not agglutinated. The ability to agglutinate is rapidly acquired by normal mouse cells on infection with the murine sarcoma virus at a rate that parallels virus replication. In contrast to the results obtained with cells producing virus, non-virus-producing transformed hamster and mouse cells that synthesize virus-specific RNA are either not agglutinated or are agglutinated to a lesser degree. These results suggest that the cell surface alterations responsible for agglutination are not necessarily associated with the transformed state of the cell, but rather with the possession of sarcoma virus-specific information.     

Detection and Assay of Avian Tumor Virus Group-Specific Antigen and Antibody by the Paired Radioiodine-Labeled Antibody Technique

The paired radioiodine-labeled antibody technique (PRILAT) was applied to the detection and quantitation of avian tumor virus group-specific (gs) antigens and antibody. The technique proved to be specific, repeatable, and appreciably more sensitive than the microcomplement-fixation test for avian leukosis (COFAL). The PRILAT facilitated direct measurement of comparative antigen content of several types of transformed, neoplastic, or virus-infected cells and the magnitude of nonspecific antibody binding by appropriate control cells. The versatility of the technique was illustrated by application to the detection and quantitation of gs antibody content of chicken, turkey, pigeon, and hamster sera. Antibodies were detected in COFAL-negative sera from hamsters bearing tumors induced by the Schmidt-Ruppin strain of Rous sarcoma virus. Sera from chickens bearing similar tumors were not positive for gs antibodies, although sera from turkeys and chickens immunized with avian leukosis virus did contain gs antibodies.     

应用病毒感染细胞酶联免疫吸附试验检测肾综合征出血热病毒抗原和抗体

应用病毒感染细胞酶联免疫吸附试验(VIC-ELISA)检测肾综合征出血热病毒(HFRSV)感染性滴度比双抗体间接ELISA和间接免疫荧光法(IFA)分别敏感10倍和100倍。VIC-ELISA检测兔抗HFRSV抗体的滴度比双抗体间接夹心ELISA和IFA分别敏感1.6倍和8倍。VIC-ELISA能敏感、快速、有效地检测HFRSV抗原和抗体。     

Detection of Bluetongue Virus Group-specific Antigen Using Monoclonal Antibody Based Sandwich ELISA

A monoclonal antibody (MAb) specific for the bluetongue virus (BTV) group specific antigen (VP7) was characterized for its reactivity with purified virus and recombinant BTV VP7 (rVP7) protein and its suitability for use in the sandwich ELISA.The MAb,designated as 5B5 was specific to VP7 and belongs to IgG2a subclass and was selected for the development of the sELISA in this study.The MAb had a titer of 1:25 with BTV and 1:2 with the rVP7 protein.The sELISA is based on capturing of BTV antigen with VP7 spec...     

Enterovirus-71 Virus-Like Particles Induce the Activation and Maturation of Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells through TLR4 Signaling

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) causes seasonal epidemics of hand-foot-and-mouth disease and has a high mortality rate among young children. We recently demonstrated potent induction of the humoral and cell-mediated immune response in monkeys immunized with EV71 virus-like particles (VLPs), with a morphology resembling that of infectious EV71 virions but not containing a viral genome, which could potentially be safe as a vaccine for EV71. To elucidate the mechanisms through which EV71 VLPs induce cell-mediated immunity, we studied the immunomodulatory effects of EV71 VLPs on human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs), which bind to and incorporate EV71 VLPs. DC treatment with EV71 VLPs enhanced the expression of CD80, CD86, CD83, CD40, CD54, and HLA-DR on the cell surface; increased the production of interleukin (IL)-12 p40, IL-12 p70, and IL-10 by DCs; and suppressed the capacity of DCs for endocytosis. Treatment with EV71 VLPs also enhanced the ability of DCs to stimulate naïve T cells and induced secretion of interferon (IFN)-γ by T cells and Th1 cell responses. Neutralization with antibodies against Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 suppressed the capacity of EV71 VLPs to induce the production of IL-12 p40, IL-12 p70, and IL-10 by DCs and inhibited EV71 VLPs binding to DCs. Our study findings clarified the important role for TLR4 signaling in DCs in response to EV71 VLPs and showed that EV71 VLPs induced inhibitor of kappaB alpha (IκBα) degradation and nuclear factor of kappaB (NF-κB) activation.     

Env-Expressing Autologous T Lymphocytes Induce Neutralizing Antibody and Afford Marked Protection against Feline Immunodeficiency Virus

The envelope (Env) glycoproteins of HIV and other lentiviruses possess neutralization and other protective epitopes, yet all attempts to induce protective immunity using Env as the only immunogen have either failed or afforded minimal levels of protection. In a novel prime-boost approach, specific-pathogen-free cats were primed with a plasmid expressing Env of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and then boosted with their own T lymphocytes transduced ex vivo to produce the same Env and interleukin 15 (3 × 10⁶ to 10 × 10⁶ viable cells/cat). After the boost, the vaccinees developed elevated immune responses, including virus-neutralizing antibodies (NA). Challenge with an ex vivo preparation of FIV readily infected all eight control cats (four mock vaccinated and four naïve) and produced a marked decline in the proportion of peripheral CD4 T cells. In contrast, five of seven vaccinees showed little or no traces of infection, and the remaining two had reduced viral loads and underwent no changes in proportions of CD4 T cells. Interestingly, the viral loads of the vaccinees were inversely correlated to the titers of NA. The findings support the concept that Env is a valuable immunogen but needs to be administered in a way that permits the expression of its full protective potential.Despite years of intense research, a truly protective AIDS vaccine is far away. Suboptimal immunogenicity, inadequate antigen presentation, and inappropriate immune system activation are believed to have contributed to these disappointing results. However, several lines of evidence suggest that the control or prevention of infection is possible. For example, despite repeated exposures, some individuals escape infection or delay disease progression after being infected (1, 14, 15). Furthermore, passively infused neutralizing antibodies (NA) (28, 42, 51) or endogenously expressed NA derivatives (29) have been shown to provide protection against intravenous simian immunodeficiency virus challenge. On the other hand, data from several vaccine experiments suggest that cellular immunity is an important factor for protection (6, 32). Therefore, while immune protection against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other lentiviruses appears feasible, the strategies for eliciting it remain elusive.Because of its crucial role in viral replication and infectivity, the HIV envelope (Env) is an attractive immunogen and has been included in nearly all vaccine formulations tested so far (28, 30, 31). Env surface (SU) and transmembrane glycoproteins (gp) are actively targeted by the immune system (9, 10, 47), and Env-specific antibodies and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are produced early in infection. The appearance of these effectors also coincides with the decline of viremia during the acute phase of infection (30, 32). Individuals who control HIV infection in the absence of antiretroviral therapy have Env-specific NA and CTL responses that are effective against a wide spectrum of viral strains (14, 23, 35, 52, 60). At least some of the potentially protective epitopes in Env appear to interact with the cellular receptors during viral entry and are therefore highly conserved among isolates (31, 33, 39, 63). However, these epitopes have complex secondary and tertiary structures and are only transiently exposed by the structural changes that occur during the interaction between Env and its receptors (10, 11, 28). As a consequence, these epitopes are usually concealed from the immune system, and this may explain, at least in part, why Env-based vaccines have failed to show protective efficacy. Indeed, data from previous studies suggested that protection may be most effectively triggered by nascent viral proteins (22, 28, 30, 48, 62).We have conducted a proof-of-concept study to evaluate whether presenting Env to the immune system in a manner as close as possible to what occurs in the context of a natural infection may confer some protective advantage. The study was carried out with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), a lentivirus similar to HIV that establishes persistent infections and causes an AIDS-like disease in domestic cats. As far as it is understood, FIV evades immune surveillance through mechanisms similar to those exploited by HIV, and attempts to develop an effective FIV vaccine have met with difficulties similar to those encountered with AIDS vaccines (25, 37, 66). In particular, attempts to use FIV Env as a protective immunogen have repeatedly failed (13, 38, 58). Here we report the result of one experiment in which specific-pathogen-free (SPF) cats primed with a DNA immunogen encoding FIV Env and feline granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and boosted with viable, autologous T lymphocytes ex vivo that were transduced to express Env and feline interleukin 15 (IL-15) showed a remarkable level of protection against challenge with ex vivo FIV. Consistent with recent findings indicating the importance of NA in controlling lentiviral infections (1, 59, 63), among the immunological parameters investigated, only the titers of NA correlated inversely with protection. Collectively, the findings support the notion that Env is a valuable vaccine immunogen but needs to be administered in a way that permits the expression of its full protective potential.     

CHO细胞表达的抗炭疽保护性抗原人源化抗体的纯化及质量控制分析

目的:建立CHO细胞表达的抗炭疽保护性抗原人源化单抗纯化工艺和质量控制方法。方法:收获50 L生物反应器中无血清悬浮培养的CHO工程细胞培养液,通过高速离心去除细胞及碎片后超滤浓缩上清液,经亲和层析、SPFF阳离子交换层析后,将所得目的蛋白质经G25凝胶柱更换缓冲液以完成纯化;对纯化的产品进行单抗鉴别(Western印迹)、相对分子质量(SDS-PAGE和MOLDI-TOF)、纯度(SEC-HPLC)、生物学活性(毒素中和试验)、产品相关杂质(SEC-HPLC检测聚集体、降解产物)、工艺相关杂质(ELISA分析残余宿主蛋白、残余蛋白A)、安全性(凝胶法检测内毒素、薄膜过滤法考察无菌)分析。结果:样品回收率达61.7%;单抗鉴别实验阳性;MOLDI-TOF测定完整分子的相对分子质量为147 995,与预期相符;单体比例为99.25%,二聚体比例为0.75%;EC50值为0.1516μg/m L。残余宿主蛋白、残余蛋白A、内毒素、无菌检查结果符合药典要求。结论:初步建立了纯化工艺和质量控制方法,为抗炭疽人源化单抗药物的研制奠定了基础。     

Development of a Highly Protective Combination Monoclonal Antibody Therapy against Chikungunya Virus

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus that causes global epidemics of a debilitating polyarthritis in humans. As there is a pressing need for the development of therapeutic agents, we screened 230 new mouse anti-CHIKV monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) for their ability to inhibit infection of all three CHIKV genotypes. Four of 36 neutralizing MAbs (CHK-102, CHK-152, CHK-166, and CHK-263) provided complete protection against lethality as prophylaxis in highly susceptible immunocompromised mice lacking the type I IFN receptor (Ifnar^−/−) and mapped to distinct epitopes on the E1 and E2 structural proteins. CHK-152, the most protective MAb, was humanized, shown to block viral fusion, and require Fc effector function for optimal activity in vivo. In post-exposure therapeutic trials, administration of a single dose of a combination of two neutralizing MAbs (CHK-102+CHK-152 or CHK-166+CHK-152) limited the development of resistance and protected immunocompromised mice against disease when given 24 to 36 hours before CHIKV-induced death. Selected pairs of highly neutralizing MAbs may be a promising treatment option for CHIKV in humans.     

表达乙型脑炎病毒抗原的非复制型重组痘苗病毒能在小鼠中诱发免疫保护

使用2×107PFU乙脑病毒野毒株GSS抗原preM-E-NS1-NS2a的非复制型重组痘苗病毒NTV-JEV免疫3周龄BALB/c小鼠,小鼠体内乙脑病毒特异性抗体滴度1∶71,IgG2a/IgG1为1.5,中和抗体滴度为1∶8,免疫组小鼠产生特异性补体介导的细胞杀伤作用。以10 LD50乙脑P3株病毒对小鼠进行了脑内攻击,NTV-JEV免疫组小鼠存活率为100%,与乙脑减毒活疫苗SA14-14-2免疫组存活率相同。100 LD50P3株病毒攻击后NTV-JEV免疫组存活率28.6%,与SA14-14-2组免疫效果无明显差别。存活小鼠体内乙脑病毒特异性抗体升高为1∶179,IgG2a/IgG1比值为1.9,中和抗体大于1∶16。以30 LD50GSS株病毒进行攻击后,NTV-JEV免疫组和SA14-14-2组保护率均为8.3%。上述结果表明,NTV-JEV与乙脑减毒活疫苗SA14-14-2株具有相近的保护力,NTV-JEV不仅可以保护小鼠抵抗同株病毒GSS的攻击,而且可以抵抗异株病毒P3的攻击。     

带有PreS的重组乙肝表面抗原在毕赤酵母中的表达

带有ＰｒｅＳ区的乙肝表面抗原（ＨＢｓＡｇ）有望成为新一代更高效的乙肝疫苗。利用毕赤属酵母（Ｐｉｃｈｉａ ｐａｓｔｏｒｉｓ）表达系统,表达了带有ＰｒｅＳ区免疫决定簇的理组乙肝表面抗原Ｓ１Ｓ、ＳＳ１和Ｓ２Ｓ。对表达产物的性质鉴定表明,产物可以形成２具有相应的Ｓ、ＰｒｅＳ１或ＰｒｅＳ２抗原性的颗粒,表达水平高于啤酒酵母（Ｓａｃｃｈａｒｏｍｙｃｅｓ ｃｅｒｅｖｉｓｉａｅ）表达系统。     

抗乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原T7噬菌体抗体库的构建

构建T7噬菌体单链抗体(scFv)库筛选抗乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原抗体.从抗-HBs阳性患者外周血淋巴细胞中提取总RNA,反转录合成cDNA第1条链,PCR分别扩增抗体重链可变区基因(VH)和轻链可变区基因(VL),经重叠延伸拼接(SOE)PCR组成scFv基因,并将其与T7噬菌体载体的2个臂相连接.体外包装后,在宿主菌BLT5403中,扩增重组噬菌体抗体库.以乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原进行4轮“吸附-洗脱-扩增”的筛选,酶免疫实验检测抗体活性.所建抗体库库容为1.53×107,扩增后初级库滴度为2.42×1010pfu/mL.以乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原筛选后抗体出现特异性富集,经酶免疫实验鉴定,得到2株与HBsAg抗原特异结合的噬菌体抗体,成功构建了抗HBsAg蛋白T7噬菌体抗体库.     

Virus-Like Particles from Escherichia coli-Derived Untagged Papaya Ringspot Virus Capsid Protein Purified by Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography Enhance the Antibody Response Against a Soluble Antigen

There is a growing interest in using virus-like particles (VLPs) as scaffolds for the presentation of antigens of choice to the immune system. In this work, VLPs from papaya ringspot virus capsid protein expressed in Escherichia coli were evaluated as enhancers of antibody response against a soluble antigen. Interestingly, although the capsid protein lacks a histidine tag, its purification by immobilized metal affinity chromatography was achieved. The formation of VLPs was demonstrated by electron microscopy for the first time for this capsid protein. VLPs were enriched by polyethylene glycol precipitation. Additionally, these VLPs were chemically coupled to green fluorescent protein in order to evaluate them as antigen carriers; however, bioconjugate instability was observed. Nonetheless, the adjuvant effect of these VLPs on BALB/c mice was evaluated, using GFP as antigen, resulting in a significant increase in anti-GFP IgG response, particularly, IgG1 class, demonstrating that the VLPs enhance the immune response against the antigen chosen in this study.     

炭疽菌保护性抗原受体结合区的表达及其多克隆抗体的制备

原核表达炭疽杆菌保护性抗原受体结合区并制备该蛋白的多克隆抗体.从炭疽芽胞杆菌A16R中经PCR扩增得到了炭疽菌保护性抗原(PA)受体结合区基因,即PA的第四结构域(PA-D4),将其克隆至含有6×His编码序列的原核表达载体pET-2b(+)中,将重组质粒转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),在IPTG诱导下进行蛋白表达;用HiTrapTM Chelating HP柱纯化重组蛋白,Western blot进一步鉴定;以纯化后的蛋白为抗原,免疫新西兰大耳白兔制备该蛋白的多克隆抗体;用ELISA和Western blot检测抗血清.结果表明,目的蛋白在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中获得了可溶性表达,纯化后纯度可达90%以上;制备了针对PA-D4融合蛋白的高效价抗血清,ELISA抗体滴度为1∶ 102 400;其抗体能特异性识别内源性的PA.PA-D4重组蛋白及其多克隆抗体的获得,为后续研究其功能和炭疽疫苗免疫保护机制奠定了基础.     

A Dual TLR Agonist Adjuvant Enhances the Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of the Tuberculosis Vaccine Antigen ID93

With over eight million cases of tuberculosis each year there is a pressing need for the development of new vaccines against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Subunit vaccines consisting of recombinant proteins are an attractive vaccine approach due to their inherent safety compared to attenuated live vaccines and the uniformity of manufacture. Addition of properly formulated TLR agonist-containing adjuvants to recombinant protein vaccines enhances the antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell response characterized by IFN-γ and TNF, both of which are critical for the control of TB. We have developed a clinical stage vaccine candidate consisting of a recombinant fusion protein ID93 adjuvanted with the TLR4 agonist GLA-SE. Here we examine whether ID93+GLA-SE can be improved by the addition of a second TLR agonist. Addition of CpG containing DNA to ID93+GLA-SE enhanced the magnitude of the multi-functional T_H1 response against ID93 characterized by co-production of IFN-γ, TNF, and IL-2. Addition of CpG also improved the protective efficacy of ID93+GLA-SE. Finally we demonstrate that this adjuvant synergy between GLA and CpG is independent of TRIF signaling, whereas TRIF is necessary for the adjuvant activity of GLA-SE in the absence of CpG.