Phytochemical differentiation of Galanthus nivalis and Galanthus elwesii (Amaryllidaceae): A case study

The alkaloid patterns of two occasionally sympatric Galanthus nivalis and Galanthus elwesii populations were studied by GC/MS. Thirty-seven alkaloids were detected, 25 for G. nivalis and 17 for G. elwesii. Only five alkaloids were found to occur in both species. The populations of Galanthus differed in their alkaloid biosynthetic pathways. Thus, the alkaloid pattern of G. nivalis was dominated by compounds coming from a para–para′ oxidative coupling of O-methylnorbelladine. The predominant alkaloids in the roots of this species were found to belong to the lycorine and tazettine structural types; bulbs were dominated by tazettine, leaves by lycorine and flowers by haemanthamine type alkaloids. In contrast, the alkaloid pattern of G. elwesii was dominated mainly by compounds coming from an ortho–para′ oxidative coupling. The predominant alkaloids in G. elwesii roots, bulbs and leaves were those of homolycorine type, whereas the flowers accumulated mainly tyramine type compounds. The chemotaxonomical value of the alkaloids found in the studied species is discussed.     

Breeding patterns of great tits ( Parus major ) in pine forests along the Portuguese west coast

The breeding biology of great tits (Parus major) was studied in two forests of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) on the west coast of Portugal, 200 km apart: Leiria (north) and Aposti?a (south). These two forests are located in a transition zone between Atlantic climate in the north, and Mediterranean climate in the south. Breeding onset was, on average, in the second and third week of March, which are the earliest records of breeding for this species. The southern population started to breed earlier than the northern one and produced a larger first clutch, 8.3 and 7.4 eggs, respectively. Corresponding to larger clutch sizes, we also found a higher first brood fledgling production in Aposti?a compared to Leiria, 6.1 and 5.4 fledglings, respectively. However, the total number of fledglings produced per pair was higher in Leiria (8.3) than in Aposti?a (7.7), due to higher productivity of second clutches (4.7 and 2.7 fledglings, respectively). Accordingly, the allocation of eggs between successive breeding attempts was more equal in Leiria. Results are discussed in accordance to the different climatic patterns in the two areas. It is suggested that the timing of breeding and different allocation of reproductive investment between successive breeding attempts play an important role in optimizing breeding tactics in this facultative multiple-brooded passerine in different climatic areas.     

The phylogenetic placement of the Leucogastrales, including Mycolevis siccigleba (Cribbeaceae), in the Albatrellaceae using morphological and molecular data

The morphology of many hypogeous fungi converges on a homogeneous reduced form, suggesting that disparate lineages are subject to a uniform selection pressure. The primary goal of this study was to evaluate the morphology and infer the phylogeny of the Leucogastrales with Mycolevis siccigleba using a Bayesian methodology. A comprehensive morphological assessment was used for an a priori phylogenetic inference to guide the sequencing effort. All structures except spore ornamentation pointed to the Albatrellaceae as the most likely sister taxon. Polyporoletus sublividus, a close relative of Albatrellus, produces ornamented basidiospores with a similar structure to M. siccigleba basidiospores. The ITS from 30 taxa was used for the molecular phylogenetic analysis. P. sublividus was found sister to Mycolevis. Leucophleps spinispora and L. magnata formed a group sister to the Polyporoletus/Mycolevis group, whereas Leucogaster was polyphyletic with respect to the core of the Leucogastrales and sister to A. caeruleoporus. This relationship was expected as previously undescribed chlamydospores produced by members of Albatrellus had a similar morphology to the basidiospores of L. rubescens.     

Suitability of Aphis fabae, Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Aleyrodes proletella (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) as prey for Coccinella undecimpunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

The suitability of Aphis fabae Scopoli, Myzus persicae Sulzer and Aleyrodes proletella L. as food sources for Coccinella undecimpunctata L. was evaluated by studying the impact of prey consumption on the predator’s population growth parameters and feeding parameters. Unlike A. proletella, A. fabae and M. persicae supported the development and reproduction of C. undecimpunctata. A. fabae and M. persicae were considered to be essential prey, whereas A. proletella was considered to be an alternative prey. Aphid species showed different degrees of suitability: M. persicae significantly decreased the pre-oviposition period and increased adult longevity, fecundity and fertility compared with A. fabae. Moreover, A. fabae represents a suitable diet for larval development, but is not a suitable food source for adult reproduction. The predator’s population growth parameters, R₀, r_m and λ were increased with M. persicae, whereas T decreased. We found that the 4th instar larvae were the most voracious, particularly when fed on M. persicae; nevertheless, with this prey daily weight gain and feeding efficiency of 4th instar larvae were similar to that of individuals fed with A. fabae.     

New species of Phaeoramularia, Pseudocercospora and Stenella from Western Ghats of India

Four new species of the hyphomycete genera Phaeoramularia viz. Ph. caesalpinae, Pseudocercospora viz., Ps. tiliacearum, Stenella, viz. S. argyreiae and S. grewiae occurring on Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming (Caesalpiniaceae), Grewia sp. (Tiliaceae), Argyrea sp. Lour (Convolvulaceae) and Grewia sp. L. (Tiliaceae), respectively are described and illustrated here. All these fungi were collected from Western Ghats of India.     

Stage-specific mortality of Rhagoletis indifferens (Diptera: Tephritidae) exposed to three species of Steinernema nematodes

Mortality of larval, pupal, and adult western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens (Tephritidae) exposed to the steinernematid nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae, and Steinernema intermedium, was determined in the laboratory and field. Larvae were the most susceptible stage, with mortality in the three nematode treatments ranging from 62 to 100%. S. carpocapsae and S. feltiae were equally effective against larvae at both 50 and 100 infective juveniles (IJs)/cm². S. intermedium was slightly less effective against larvae than the other two species. Mortalities of R. indifferens larvae at 0, 2, 4, and 6 days following their introduction into soil previously treated with S. carpocapsae and S. feltiae at 50 IJs/cm² were 78.6, 92.5, 95.0, and 77.5% and 87.5, 52.5, 92.5, and 70.0%, respectively, and at 100 IJs/cm² were 90.0, 92.0, 100.0, and 84.0% and 90.0, 50.0, 42.0, and 40.0%, respectively. There was no decline in mortality caused by S. carpocapsae as time progressed, whereas there was in one test with S. feltiae. Larval mortalities caused by the two species were the same in a 1:1:1 vermiculite:peat moss:sand soil mix and a more compact silt loam soil. In the field, S. carpocapsae and S. feltiae were equally effective against larvae. Pupae were not infected, but adult flies were infected by all three nematode species in the laboratory. S. carpocapsae was the most effective species at a concentration of 100 IJs/cm² and infected 11–53% of adults that emerged. The high pathogenicity of S. carpocapsae and S. feltiae against R. indifferens larvae and their persistence in soil as well as efficacy in different soil types indicate both nematodes hold promise as effective biological control agents of flies in isolated and abandoned lots or in yards of homeowners.     

Nomenclatural changes resulting from the transfer of tropical African Sarcostemma to Cynanchum ( Apocynaceae : Asclepiadoideae )

Summary  Four species of tropical African Sarcostemma are transferred to Cynanchum together with two subspecies of S. viminale. In addition, Sarcostemma mulanjense is reduced to subspecific rank under C. viminale.     

A new species of Sarcostemma (Apocynaceae-Asclepiadoideae-Asclepiadeae) from Yemen

Sarcostemma areysianum Bruyns is described from the southern mountains of Yemen. It appears to be most closely related to S. arabicum Bruyns & P. Forst. and S. socotranum Lavranos, differing from both by the taller gynostegium with narrow, mostly acute inner corona lobes. A key to the species from Arabia and Socotra is provided.     

Phylogeny and biogeography of Chinese and Australasian Polystichum ferns as inferred from chloroplast trnL-F and rps4-trnS sequence data

Polystichum, one of the largest genera of ferns, occurs worldwide with the greatest diversity in southwest China and adjacent regions. Although there have been studies of Chinese Polystichum on its traditional classification, geographic distributions, and even a few on its molecular systematics, its relationships to other species outside China remain little known. Here, we investigated the phylogeny and biogeography of the Polystichum species from China and Australasia. The evolutionary relationships among 42 Polystichum species found in China (29 taxa) and Australasia (13 taxa) were inferred from phylogenetic analyses of two chloroplast DNA sequence data sets: rps4-trnS and trnL-F intergenic spacers. The divergence time between Chinese and Australasian Polystichum was estimated. The results indicated that the Australasian species comprise a monophyletic group that is nested within the Chinese diversity, and that the New Zealand species are likewise a monophyletic group nested within the Australasian species. The divergence time estimates suggested that Chinese Polystichum migrated into Australasia from around 40 Ma ago, and from there to New Zealand from about 14 Ma. The diversification of the New Zealand Polystichum species began about 10 Ma. These results indicated that Polystichum probably originated in eastern Asia and migrated into Australasia: first into Australia and then into New Zealand.     

Yessotoxin detected in mussel (Mytilus californicus) and phytoplankton samples from the U.S. west coast

Yessotoxin (YTX) was detected in an algal sample and two mussel samples (0.07–0.10 μg g⁻¹) collected from Scripps Pier in La Jolla, California during a bloom of Lingulodinium polyedrum. Mussel samples collected from Monterey Bay, California also contained measurable YTX (levels up to 0.06 μg g⁻¹) in samples obtained during a 6-month (weekly) sampling period. Gonyaulax spinifera and L. polyedrum were identified in background concentrations in Monterey Bay during the time of contamination. An algal sample from Washington coastal waters collected during non-bloom conditions also contained YTX, possibly originating from Protoceratium reticulatum.Three strains of L. polyedrum (CCMP1931, CCMP1936, 104A) isolated from southern California coastal waters and one strain of G. spinifera (CCMP409) isolated from Maine were tested for YTX production using two methods, competitive ELISA and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). The ELISA method detected YTX in the particulate phase in two of three L. polyedrum strains. The LC–MS method did not detect YTX in the particulate or dissolved phase of any of the strains.To our knowledge, this is the first study to test and confirm YTX in environmental samples from California and Washington coastal waters. It is highly likely that L. polyedrum was responsible for the YTX contamination in the southern California samples. Future research needs to conclusively determine the biological origin(s) of YTX contamination in central California and Washington coastal waters.     

Molecular phylogeny of the Acre clade (Crassulaceae): Dealing with the lack of definitions for Echeveria and Sedum

The phylogenetic relationships within many clades of the Crassulaceae are still uncertain, therefore in this study attention was focused on the “Acre clade”, a group comprised of approximately 526 species in eight genera that include many Asian and Mediterranean species of Sedum and the majority of the American genera (Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Lenophyllum, Pachyphytum, Villadia, and Thompsonella). Parsimony and Bayesian analyses were conducted with 133 species based on nuclear (ETS, ITS) and chloroplast DNA regions (rpS16, matK). Our analyses retrieved four major clades within the Acre clade. Two of these were in a grade and corresponded to Asian species of Sedum, the rest corresponded to a European–Macaronesian group and to an American group. The American group included all taxa that were formerly placed in the Echeverioideae and the majority of the American Sedoideae. Our analyses support the monophyly of three genera – Lenophyllum, Thompsonella, and Pachyphytum; however, the relationships among Echeveria, Sedum and the various segregates of Sedum are largely unresolved. Our analyses represents the first broad phylogenetic framework for Acre clade, but further studies are necessary on the groups poorly represented here, such as the European and Asian species of Sedum and the Central and South American species of Echeveria.     

An extensive Cochlodinium bloom along the western coast of Palawan, Philippines

A massive fish kill and water discoloration were reported off the western coast of Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines in March 2005. Phytoplankton analysis revealed a near monospecific bloom of the dinoflagellate, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, with cell concentrations ranging from 2.5 × 10⁵ to 3.2 × 10⁶ cells per liter. Ground truth data were supplemented by processed satellite images from MODIS Aqua Level 2 data (1 km resolution) from January to April 2005, which revealed high surface chlorophyll-a levels (up to 50 mg/m³) offshore of west and southwest Palawan as early as February 2005. The bloom extended 310 km in length and 80 km in width at its peak in March off the central coast (Puerto Princesa). By April, the bloom declined in intensity, but was still apparent along the northern coast (El Nido). Fluctuations in chlorophyll levels off the western coast of Sabah, Malaysia and Brunei during this time period suggested that the bloom was not limited to the coast of Palawan. Satellite imagery from Sabah in late January revealed a plume of chl-a that is believed to be the source of the C. polykrikoides bloom in Palawan. This plume drifted offshore, advected northward via the basin-wide counterclockwise gyre, and reached nutrient-rich, upwelled waters near Palawan (due to a positive wind stress curl) where the dinoflagellate bloomed and persisted for 2 months from March to April 2005.     

The emergence of Cochlodinium along the California Coast (USA)

A sudden and nearly synchronous emergence of the red tide forming dinoflagellate Cochlodinium along more than 800 km of California coastline was initially observed in late summer 2004. Thereafter high cell concentrations have been detected on an annual basis. Here, we present quantitative and semi-quantitative data indicating that Cochlodinium was uncommon in the phytoplankton community in California prior to 2004 and is now persisting as a more regular component and one that seasonally can cause red tides. The quantitative portion of this study was primarily conducted in Monterey Bay, where cell densities reached at least 6 × 10⁴ cells L⁻¹ during the initial outbreak. A semi-quantitative comparison of California coastal counties by the California Department of Health Services (CDHS) was also made: of the 15 counties surveyed (most with multiple sites per county), cells were detected only from Los Angeles County in the south to San Mateo County in the central region (seven counties), but not in the northern part of the state (six counties). Two counties in the central region of the state, San Luis Obispo and Santa Cruz, displayed intense and frequent periods of elevated Cochlodinium cell abundances. Although not observed in the state-wide CDHS survey, we occasionally found cells in San Diego County with densities up to 2.7 × 10⁴ cells L⁻¹. Though these colonial dinoflagellates have been recognized in California for over 80 years, with several “blooms” recorded prior to 2004, the species’ geographic range and abundance in recent years suggest significant shifts in the nearshore phytoplankton community of this region of the eastern Pacific.     

A new fungal genus, Teracosphaeria, with a phialophora-like anamorph (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota)

The new genus and species Teracosphaeria petroica is described for a perithecial ascomycete and its anamorph occurring on decayed wood collected in New Zealand. The fungus produces immersed, non-stromatic ceratosphaeria-like perithecia in nature, with hyaline, septate ascospores produced in unitunicate, non-amyloid asci. The anamorph produced in vitro is phialophora-like with lightly pigmented phialides terminating in flaring, deep collarettes that are often noticeably brown with conspicuous periclinal thickening. Phylogenetic analysis of LSU rDNA sequence data indicates that this fungus is distinct from morphologically similar fungi classified in the Chaetosphaeriales, the Trichosphaeriales or the Magnaporthaceae. It forms a monophyletic group with recently described, chaetosphaeria-like ascomycetes, such as the pyrenomycete genus Mirannulata, and shows affinity with the anamorphic species Dictyochaeta cylindrospora. The usefulness of describing anamorph genera for morphologically reduced anamorphs, when anamorph characteristics are actually part of the holomorph diagnosis, is discussed. An apparently contradictory example of the so-called Cordana and Pseudobotrytis anamorphs of Porosphaerella spp. is also discussed.     

Phylogenetic relationships of Ceratitis fruit flies inferred from nuclear CAD and tango/ARNT gene fragments: Testing monophyly of the subgenera Ceratitis (Ceratitis) and C. (Pterandrus)

Systematic studies of Ceratitis (Tephritidae) fruit flies using molecular (i.e., COI, ND6, and period genes) and morphological (plus host-use characters) data have recently challenged the monophyly of the subgenera Ceratitis (Ceratitis) and Ceratitis (Pterandrus). In this paper, we report on the phylogenetic utility of three single-copy nuclear gene regions (two non-overlapping fragments of the carbamoylphosphate synthetase, CPS, locus of CAD, and a fragment of tango) within these taxa and investigate evolutionary relationships based on a concatenated ca. 3.4 kb data set that includes the six protein encoding gene regions. Results indicate that the CAD and tango genes provide useful phylogenetic signal within the taxa and are compatible with the previously studied genes. The two subgenera, as currently classified, are not monophyletic. Our molecular phylogenetic analyses support a revised classification in which (1) the subgenus C. (Pterandrus) comprises two lineages called A and B, (2) the C. (Pterandrus) B species should be included in C. (Ceratitis), and (3) the newly defined subgenera C. (Pterandrus) (=Pterandrus section A) and C. (Ceratitis) [=C. (Ceratitis) + C. (Pterandrus) section B] are reciprocally monophyletic.     

Probing the Drosophila retinal determination gene network in Tribolium (II): The Pax6 genes eyeless and twin of eyeless

The Pax6 genes eyeless (ey) and twin of eyeless (toy) are upstream regulators in the retinal determination gene network (RDGN), which instructs the formation of the adult eye primordium in Drosophila. Most animals possess a singleton Pax6 ortholog, but the dependence of eye development on Pax6 is widely conserved. A rare exception is given by the larval eyes of Drosophila, which develop independently of ey and toy. To obtain insight into the origin of differential larval and adult eye regulation, we studied the function of toy and ey in the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. We find that single and combinatorial knockdown of toy and ey affect larval eye development strongly but adult eye development only mildly in this primitive hemimetabolous species. Compound eye-loss, however, was provoked when ey and toy were RNAi-silenced in combination with the early retinal gene dachshund (dac). We propose that these data reflect a role of Pax6 during regional specification in the developing head and that the subsequent maintenance and growth of the adult eye primordium is regulated partly by redundant and partly by specific functions of toy, ey and dac in Tribolium. The results from embryonic knockdown and comparative protein sequence analysis lead us further to conclude that Tribolium represents an ancestral state of redundant control by ey and toy.     

Complete mtDNA of Meretrix lusoria (Bivalvia: Veneridae) reveals the presence of an atp8 gene, length variation and heteroplasmy in the control region

The complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of the clam Meretrix lusoria (Bivalvia: Veneridae) was determined. It comprises 20,268 base pairs (bp) and contains 13 protein-coding genes, including ATPase subunit 8 (atp8), two ribosomal RNAs, 22 transfer RNAs, and a non-coding control region. The atp8 encodes a protein of 39 amino acids. All genes are encoded on the same strand. A putative control region (CR or D-loop) was identified in the major non-coding region (NCR) between the tRNA^Gly and tRNA^Gln. A 1087 bp tandem repeat fragment was identified that comprises nearly 11 copies of a 101 bp motif and accounts for approximately 41% of the NCR. The 101 bp tandem repeat motif of the NCR can be folded into a stem–loop secondary structure. Samples of eight individuals from Hainan and Fujian provinces were collected and their NCR regions were successfully amplified and sequenced. The data revealed a highly polymorphic VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) associated with high levels of heteroplasmy in the D-loop region. The size of the CR ranged from 1942 to 3354 bp depending upon the copy number of the repeat sequence.     

Foreign exploration for Scirtothrips perseae Nakahara (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and associated natural enemies on avocado (Persea americana Miller)

Scirtothrips perseae Nakahara was discovered attacking avocados in California, USA, in 1996. Host plant surveys in California indicated that S. perseae has a highly restricted host range with larvae being found only on avocados, while adults were collected from 11 different plant species. As part of a management program for this pest, a “classical” biological control program was initiated and foreign exploration was conducted to delineate the home range of S. perseae, to survey for associated natural enemies and inventory other species of phytophagous thrips on avocados grown in Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad, and Brazil. Foreign exploration efforts indicate that S. perseae occurs on avocados grown at high altitudes (>1500 m) from Uruapan in Mexico south to areas around Guatemala City in Guatemala. In Costa Rica, S. perseae is replaced by an undescribed congener as the dominant phytophagous thrips on avocados grown at high altitudes (>1300 m). No species of Scirtothrips were found on avocados in the Dominican Republic, Trinidad, or Brazil. In total, 2136 phytophagous thrips were collected and identified, representing over 47 identified species from at least 19 genera. The significance of these species records is discussed. Of collected material 4% were potential thrips biological control agents. Natural enemies were dominated by six genera of predatory thrips (Aeolothrips, Aleurodothrips, Franklinothrips, Leptothrips, Scolothrips, and Karnyothrips). One genus each of parasitoid (Ceranisus) and predatory mite (Balaustium) were found. Based on the results of our sampling techniques, prospects for the importation of thrips natural enemies for use in a “classical” biological control program in California against S. perseae are not promising.     

Insecticidal action of Bauhinia monandra leaf lectin (BmoLL) against Anagasta kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Zabrotes subfasciatus and Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

Bruchid beetle larvae cause major losses in grain legume crops throughout the world. Some bruchid species, such as the cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) and the Mexican bean weevil (Zabrotes subfasciatus), are pests that damage stored seeds. The Mediterranean flour moth (Anagasta kuehniella) is of major economic importance as a flour and grain feeder; it is often a severe pest in flour mills. Plant lectins have been implicated as antibiosis factors against insects. Bauhinia monandra leaf lectin (BmoLL) was tested for anti-insect activity against C. maculatus, Z. subfasciatus and A. kuehniella larvae. BmoLL produced ca. 50% mortality to Z. subfaciatus and C. maculatus when incorporated into an artificial diet at a level of 0.5% and 0.3% (w/w), respectively. BmooLL up to 1% did not significantly decrease the survival of A. kuehniella larvae, but produced a decrease of 40% in weight. Affinity chromatography showed that BmoLL bound to midgut proteins of the insect C. maculatus. 33 kDa subunit BmoLL was not digested by midgut preparations of these bruchids. BmoLL-fed C. maculatus larvae increased the digestion of potato starch by 25% compared with the control. The transformation of the genes coding for this lectin could be useful in the development of insect resistance in important agricultural crops.     

Phylogeny of Caragana (Fabaceae) based on DNA sequence data from rbcL, trnS–trnG, and ITS

Phylogenetic relationships of 48 species of Caragana (Fabaceae: tribe Hedysareae) and one representative each of Astragalus, Calophaca, Halimodendron, and Hedysarum are estimated from DNA sequences of the rbcL gene, trnS–trnG intron and spacer, and ITS region. At least one representative of all five sections and 12 series within Caragana are included. Analyses yielded strongly supported clades corresponding to sections Caragana, Bracteolatae, and Frutescentes. The species of section Jubatae are distributed among three strongly supported clades, i.e., one with the species of section Bracteolatae, another with two species of section Spinosae, and a third as sister to section Frutescentes. All but the last of these six clades are corroborated by at least one unambiguously traced morphological character. The placement of the other four species of section Spinosae are not well supported and lack unambiguous morphological synapomorphies, and the samples of Calophaca and Halimodendron nest within Caragana with weak support.