机械分离的果蝇幼虫中枢神经元全细胞钾电流的特性

培养的果蝇胚胎及幼虫中枢神经元已被广泛用于细胞膜离子通道,突触传递和胞内信使调节等电生理学研究,在本实验中,利用机械震荡分离方法获得了大量的果蝇幼虫中枢神经元,其中大部分为Ⅱ型神经元,运用膜片钳技术,鉴定了Ⅱ型神经元上五种具有不同动力学特性的全细胞钾电流,其中E型电流表型表现出与其它四种电流完全不同的“钟形”激活特性,进一步的研究还表明该类型电流具有明显的钙依赖性,而且它具有与其它四种电流不同的衰减特性。     

Altered outward K+ currents in Drosophila larval neurons of memory mutants rutabaga and amnesiac

K⁺ currents in cultured Drosophila larval neurons have been classified into four categories according to their inactivation time constants, relative amplitude, and response to K⁺ channel blockers 4‐AP and triethylammonium. The percentage (65%) of neurons displaying K⁺ currents which were reduced to 30% in amplitude by 5 mM cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) analog 8‐bromo‐cAMP in both Drosophila memory mutants rutabaga (rut) and amnesiac (amn) was significantly larger than that (50%) in wild type. This initial characterization provides evidence for altered K⁺ currents in both rut and amn mutants. Arachidonic acid, a specifical inhibitor of Kv4 family (shal) K⁺ channels, was found to inhibit K⁺ currents in cultured Drosophila neurons, suggesting the presence of shal channels in these neurons. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 40: 158–170, 1999     

白介素1β抑制培养的大鼠皮层神经元钠电流峰值和动作电位幅度

白介素1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)是重要的促炎细胞因子,在中枢神经系统的生理学和病理学过程中发挥关键作用.电压门控钠通道是可兴奋细胞电学活动的基础,控制神经元的兴奋性和动作电位.最近的研究又显示了IL-1β与电压门控通道之间的相互作用.为考察中枢神经元中IL-1β与电压门控钠通道之间的相互作用,本研...     

Kv3 channels contribute to the delayed rectifier current in small cultured mouse dorsal root ganglion neurons

Delayed rectifier voltage-gated K(+) (K(V)) channels are important determinants of neuronal excitability. However, the large number of K(V) subunits poses a major challenge to establish the molecular composition of the native neuronal K(+) currents. A large part (～60%) of the delayed rectifier current (I(K)) in small mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons has been shown to be carried by both homotetrameric K(V)2.1 and heterotetrameric channels of K(V)2 subunits with silent K(V) subunits (K(V)S), while a contribution of K(V)1 channels has also been demonstrated. Because K(V)3 subunits also generate delayed rectifier currents, we investigated the contribution of K(V)3 subunits to I(K) in small mouse DRG neurons. After stromatoxin (ScTx) pretreatment to block the K(V)2-containing component, application of 1 mM TEA caused significant additional block, indicating that the ScTx-insensitive part of I(K) could include K(V)1, K(V)3, and/or M-current channels (KCNQ2/3). Combining ScTx and dendrotoxin confirmed a relevant contribution of K(V)2 and K(V)2/K(V)S, and K(V)1 subunits to I(K) in small mouse DRG neurons. After application of these toxins, a significant TEA-sensitive current (～19% of total I(K)) remained with biophysical properties that corresponded to those of K(V)3 currents obtained in expression systems. Using RT-PCR, we detected K(V)3.1-3 mRNA in DRG neurons. Furthermore, Western blot and immunocytochemistry using K(V)3.1-specific antibodies confirmed the presence of K(V)3.1 in cultured DRG neurons. These biophysical, pharmacological, and molecular results demonstrate a relevant contribution (～19%) of K(V)3-containing channels to I(K) in small mouse DRG neurons, supporting a substantial role for K(V)3 subunits in these neurons.     

Mutational analysis of the Shab-encoded delayed rectifier K(+) channels in Drosophila.

K(+) currents in Drosophila muscles have been resolved into two voltage-activated currents (I(A) and I(K)) and two Ca(2+)-activated currents (I(CF) and I(CS)). Mutations that affect I(A) (Shaker) and I(CF) (slowpoke) have helped greatly in the analysis of these currents and their role in membrane excitability. Lack of mutations that specifically affect channels for the delayed rectifier current (I(K)) has made their genetic and functional identity difficult to elucidate. With the help of mutations in the Shab K(+) channel gene, we show that this gene encodes the delayed rectifier K(+) channels in Drosophila. Three mutant alleles with a temperature-sensitive paralytic phenotype were analyzed. Analysis of the ionic currents from mutant larval body wall muscles showed a specific effect on delayed rectifier K(+) current (I(K)). Two of the mutant alleles contain missense mutations, one in the amino-terminal region of the channel protein and the other in the pore region of the channel. The third allele contains two deletions in the amino-terminal region and is a null allele. These observations identity the channels that carry the delayed rectifier current and provide an in vivo physiological role for the Shab-encoded K(+) channels in Drosophila. The availability of mutations that affect I(K) opens up possibilities for studying I(K) and its role in larval muscle excitability.     

Alterations in the expression and gating of Drosophila sodium channels by mutations in the para gene

Mutations in the para gene specifically affect the expression of sodium currents in Drosophila. While 65% of wild-type embryonic neurons in culture express sodium currents, three distinct mutations in the para locus resulted in a decrease in the fraction of cells from which sodium currents could be recorded. This reduction was allele-dependent: macroscopic sodium currents were exhibited in 49% of the neurons in parats1 cultures, 35% in parats2, and only 2% in paraST76. Voltage-clamp experiments demonstrated that the parats2 mutation also affected the gating properties of sodium channels. These results provide convincing evidence that para, a gene recently shown to exhibit sequence similarity to vertebrate sodium channels alpha subunits, encodes functional sodium channels in Drosophila. The finding that one para allele (paraST76) can virtually eliminate the expression of sodium currents strongly argues that the para gene codes for the majority of sodium channels in cultured embryonic neurons.     

Thermal sensitivity of voltage-gated Na(+) channels and A-type K(+) channels contributes to somatosensory neuron excitability at cooling temperatures

J. Neurochem. (2012) 122, 1145-1154. ABSTRACT: Cooling temperatures may modify action potential firing properties to alter sensory modalities. Herein, we investigated how cooling temperatures modify action potential firing properties in two groups of rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTXs) Na(+) channel-expressing neurons and tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTXr) Na(+) channel-expressing neurons. We found that multiple action potential firing in response to membrane depolarization was suppressed in TTXs neurons but maintained or facilitated in TTXr neurons at cooling temperatures. We showed that cooling temperatures strongly inhibited A-type K(+) currents (IA) and TTXs Na(+) channels but had fewer inhibitory effects on TTXr Na(+) channels and non-inactivating K(+) currents (IK). We demonstrated that the sensitivity of A-type K(+) channels and voltage-gated Na(+) channels to cooling temperatures and their interplay determine somatosensory neuron excitability at cooling temperatures. Our results provide a putative mechanism by which cooling temperatures modify different sensory modalities including pain.     

Characterization of voltage-and Ca2+-activated K+ channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons

Auxiliary beta-subunits associated with pore-forming Slo1 alpha-subunits play an essential role in regulating functional properties of large-conductance, voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels commonly termed BK channels. Even though both noninactivating and inactivating BK channels are thought to be regulated by beta-subunits (beta1, beta2, beta3, or beta4), the molecular determinants underlying inactivating BK channels in native cells have not been extensively demonstrated. In this study, rbeta2 (but not rbeta3-subunit) was identified as a molecular component in rat lumbar L4-6 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by RT-PCR responsible for inactivating large-conductance Ca(2+)-dependent K(+) currents (BK(i) currents) in small sensory neurons. The properties of native BK(i) currents obtained from both whole-cell and inside-out patches are very similar to inactivating BK channels produced by co-expressing mSlo1 alpha- and hbeta2-subunits in Xenopus oocytes. Intracellular application of 0.5 mg/ml trypsin removes inactivation of BK(i) channels, and the specific blockers of BK channels, charybdotoxin (ChTX) and iberiotoxin (IbTX), inhibit these BK(i) currents. Single BK(i) channel currents derived from inside-out patches revealed that one BK(i) channel contained three rbeta2-subunits (on average), with a single-channel conductance about 217 pS under 160 K(+) symmetrical recording conditions. Blockade of BK(i) channels by 100 nM IbTX augmented firing frequency, broadened action potential waveform and reduced after-hyperpolarization. We propose that the BK(i) channels in small diameter DRG sensory neurons might play an important role in regulating nociceptive input to the central nervous system (CNS).     

胞外钙对豚鼠耳蜗Deiters细胞钾电流的调制

为观察胞外钙对豚鼠耳蜗单个离体Deiters细胞钾电流的调控作用并探讨其机制,实验记录了Deiters细胞在正常细胞外液和无钙外液中的全细胞钾电流(whole cell K^ currents,IK),并分析了其电生理学特性的改变。结果观察到,Deiters细胞与在正常细胞外液中相比,在祛除细胞外液中的Ca^2 后Ik电流幅值明显增加,弦电导值亦明显增加,但其平衡电位未明显改变。在无钙外液中Ik电流的反转电位向超极化方向明显移位,更接近于按照Ner-nst方程得出的K^ 理论平衡电位;而且其稳态激活曲线亦向超极化方向明显移位,但其激活趋势与正常相比无明显改变。此外,观察了Deiters细胞中钙抑制性钾电流的电流-电压关系和电导-电压关系,发现两者均呈“S”形,提示此钙抑制性钾电流可能存在2种不同的钾电导成分。由此,推测可能有两种机制参与胞外钙对Deiters细胞钾电流的调控：(1)Deiters细胞中的Ik通道可能存在一个Ca^2 敏感结构域,胞外Ca^2 可能通过改变此结构域而对Ik电流产生调制;(2)Deiters细胞中可能存在一种新型的双相门控性钾通道或钾通道耦联型受体或是一种新型的钾通道亚型,祛除胞外Ca^2 可激活此新型钾电导而对L电流产生调制。由此推测,在听觉形成过程中,胞外钙浓度下降可以对Deiters细胞的全细胞钾电流产生调制,从而更有利于Deiters细胞内K^ 外流,进而有效地缓冲外毛细胞周围的K^ 浓度：而且还可以使Deiters细胞产生更快的复极化并有利于维持其静息状态。     

Mechanism of estradiol-induced block of voltage-gated K+ currents in rat medial preoptic neurons

The present study was conducted to characterize possible rapid effects of 17-β-estradiol on voltage-gated K(+) channels in preoptic neurons and, in particular, to identify the mechanisms by which 17-β-estradiol affects the K(+) channels. Whole-cell currents from dissociated rat preoptic neurons were studied by perforated-patch recording. 17-β-Estradiol rapidly (within seconds) and reversibly reduced the K(+) currents, showing an EC(50) value of 9.7 μM. The effect was slightly voltage dependent, but independent of external Ca(2+), and not sensitive to an estrogen-receptor blocker. Although 17-α-estradiol also significantly reduced the K(+) currents, membrane-impermeant forms of estradiol did not reduce the K(+) currents and other estrogens, testosterone and cholesterol were considerably less effective. The reduction induced by estradiol was overlapping with that of the K(V)-2-channel blocker r-stromatoxin-1. The time course of K(+) current in 17-β-estradiol, with a time-dependent inhibition and a slight dependence on external K(+), suggested an open-channel block mechanism. The properties of block were predicted from a computational model where 17-β-estradiol binds to open K(+) channels. It was concluded that 17-β-estradiol rapidly reduces voltage-gated K(+) currents in a way consistent with an open-channel block mechanism. This suggests a new mechanism for steroid action on ion channels.     

Charybdotoxin block of Shaker K+ channels suggests that different types of K+ channels share common structural features

Charybdotoxin (CTX), a 37 amino acid protein isolated from the venom of L. quinquestriatus, is a high-affinity blocker of various Ca2(+)-activated K+ channels. CTX also blocks Drosophila Shaker (Sh) clone H4 transient K+ currents expressed in Xenopus oocytes with similar affinity (Kd = 3.6 nM). CTX blocks both the open and the closed states of Sh channels with no apparent change in gating behavior. In addition, the block is enhanced as the ionic strength is lowered. These properties are identical to those of CTX block of Ca(+)-activated K+ channels, and these results suggest that the external pore openings of these two functionally dissimilar K+ channels may share common structural features.     

Prokineticin 2 influences subfornical organ neurons through regulation of MAP kinase and the modulation of sodium channels

Prokineticin 2 (PK2) is a neuropeptide that acts as a signaling molecule regulating circadian rhythms in mammals. We have previously reported PK2 actions on subfornical organ (SFO) neurons, identifying this circumventricular organ as a target at which PK2 acts to influence autonomic control (Cottrell GT, and Ferguson AV. J. Neurosci. 24: 2375-2379, 2004). In this study, we have examined the cellular mechanisms by which PK2 increases the excitability of SFO neurons. Whole cell patch recordings from dissociated rat SFO neurons demonstrated that the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitor PD-98059 prevented PK2-induced depolarization and decreases in delayed rectifier K(+) current. PK2 also increased intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in 39% of dissociated SFO neurons (mean increase = 20.8 +/- 5.5%), effects that were maintained in the presence of thapsigargin but abolished by both nifedipine, or the absence of extracellular Ca(2+), suggesting that PK2-induced [Ca(2+)](i) transients resulted from Ca(2+) entry through voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. Voltage-clamp recordings showed that PK2 was without effects on Ca(2+) currents evoked by voltage ramps, suggesting that PK2-induced Ca(2+) influx was secondary to PK2-induced increases in action potential frequency, an hypothesis supported by data showing that tetrodotoxin abolished effects of PK2 on [Ca(2+)](i). These observations suggested PK2 modulation of voltage-gated Na(+) currents, a possibility confirmed by voltage-clamp experiments showing that PK2 increased the amplitude of both transient and persistent Na(+) currents in 29% of SFO neurons (by 34 and 38%, respectively). These data indicate that PK2 influences SFO neurons through the activation of a MAP kinase cascade, which, in turn, modulates Na(+) and K(+) conductances.     

Acid-sensing ion channel 2 (ASIC2) modulates ASIC1 H+-activated currents in hippocampal neurons

Hippocampal neurons express subunits of the acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC1 and ASIC2) and exhibit large cation currents that are transiently activated by acidic extracellular solutions. Earlier work indicated that ASIC1 contributed to the current in these neurons and suggested its importance for normal behavior. However, the specific contribution of ASIC1 and ASIC2 subunits to acid-evoked currents in hippocampal neurons remained uncertain. To decipher the individual role of the ASIC subunits, we studied H(+)-gated currents in neurons from both ASIC1 and ASIC2 null mice. We found that much of the current was produced by ASIC1a/2a heteromultimeric channels, and individual subunits made distinct contributions. The ASIC1a subunit was key in establishing current amplitude. The ASIC2a subunit had little effect on amplitude but influenced desensitization, recovery from desensitization, pH sensitivity, and the response to modulatory agents. We also found heterogeneity in the contribution of ASIC2 throughout the neuronal population, with individual neurons expressing both ASIC1a homomultimeric and ASIC1a/2a heteromultimeric channels. Studies of neurons heterozygous for disrupted ASIC alleles indicated that the properties of H(+)-gated currents are dependent on the proportion of the individual subunits. These findings indicate that the absolute and relative amounts of ASIC subunits determine the amplitude and properties of hippocampal H(+)-gated currents and therefore may contribute to normal physiology and pathophysiology.     

Inhibition of ion channels and heart beat in Drosophila by selective COX-2 inhibitor SC-791

Recent findings suggest that modulation of ion channels might be implicated in some of the clinical effects of coxibs, selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Celecoxib and its inactive analog 2,5-dimethyl-celecoxib, but not rofecoxib, can suppress or augment ionic currents and alter functioning of neurons and myocytes. To better understand these unexpected effects, we have recently investigated the mechanism of inhibition of human K(v)2.1 channels by a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor SC-791. In this study we have further explored the SC-791 action on ion channels and heartbeat in Drosophila, which lacks cyclooxygenases and thus can serve as a convenient model to study COX-2-independent mechanisms of coxibs. Using intracellular recordings in combination with a pharmacological approach and utilizing available Drosophila mutants, we found that SC-791 inhibited voltage-activated K(+) and L-type Ca(2+) channels in larval body-wall muscles and reduced heart rate in a concentration-dependent manner. Unlike celecoxib and several other K(+) channel blockers, SC-791 did not induce arrhythmia. Instead, application of SC-791 resulted in a dramatic slowing of contractions and, at higher concentrations, in progressively weaker contractions with gradual cessation of heartbeat. Isradipine, a selective blocker of L-type Ca(2+) channels, showed a similar pattern of heart arrest, though no prolongation of contractions was observed. Ryanodine was the only channel modulating compound of those tested additionally that was capable of slowing contractions. Like SC-791, ryanodine reduced heart rate without arrhythmia. However, it could not stop heartbeat completely even at 500 μM, the highest concentration used. The magnitude of heart rate reduction, when SC-791 and ryanodine were applied together, was smaller than expected for independent mechanisms, raising the possibility that SC-791 might be interfering with excitation-contraction coupling in Drosophila heart.     

白介素1β对大鼠皮层神经元钠电流的急性作用

白介素1β(Interleukin-1β,IL-1β)是重要的促炎细胞因子,在多种中枢神经系统的损伤和疾病过程中发挥关键作用。电压门控的钠通道是神经元中最重要的离子通道之一,是产生再生性动作电位的基础,决定了神经元的兴奋性等电学性质,也与多种中枢疾病过程相关。然而,现在还没有直接关于IL-1β与中枢钠通道的相互关系的研究。在该研究中,使用全细胞膜片钳记录测定了IL-1β对培养的皮层神经元钠电流的急性作用,并分析了由此对动作电位的影响。结果显示,IL-1β对钠电流幅度只有较小的抑制,而显著降低钠通道的半激活电压,不改变激活的斜率因子和失活性质,这个作用引起动作电位阈值显著降低。这些结果提示在损伤和疾病过程中,快速释放的IL-1β可能会增加神经元兴奋性,从而恶化神经损伤过程。     

Multifaceted Modulation of K+ Channels by Protein-tyrosine Phosphatase {epsilon} Tunes Neuronal Excitability

Non-receptor-tyrosine kinases (protein-tyrosine kinases) and non-receptor tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) have been implicated in the regulation of ion channels, neuronal excitability, and synaptic plasticity. We previously showed that protein-tyrosine kinases such as Src kinase and PTPs such as PTPα and PTPε modulate the activity of delayed-rectifier K(+) channels (I(K)). Here we show cultured cortical neurons from PTPε knock-out (EKO) mice to exhibit increased excitability when compared with wild type (WT) mice, with larger spike discharge frequency, enhanced fast after-hyperpolarization, increased after-depolarization, and reduced spike width. A decrease in I(K) and a rise in large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents (mBK) were observed in EKO cortical neurons compared with WT. Parallel studies in transfected CHO cells indicate that Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv7.2/7.3, and mBK are plausible molecular correlates of this multifaceted modulation of K(+) channels by PTPε. In CHO cells, Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv7.2/7.3 K(+) currents were up-regulated by PTPε, whereas mBK channel activity was reduced. The levels of tyrosine phosphorylation of Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv7.3, and mBK potassium channels were increased in the brain cortices of neonatal and adult EKO mice compared with WT, suggesting that PTPε in the brain modulates these channel proteins. Our data indicate that in EKO mice, the lack of PTPε-mediated dephosphorylation of Kv1.1, Kv1.2, and Kv7.3 leads to decreased I(K) density and enhanced after-depolarization. In addition, the deficient PTPε-mediated dephosphorylation of mBK channels likely contributes to enhanced mBK and fast after-hyperpolarization, spike shortening, and consequent increase in neuronal excitability observed in cortical neurons from EKO mice.     

Cholesterol-depleting compounds modulate K+-currents in Drosophila Kenyon cells

Sterol-enriched lipid rafts have been involved in Drosophila membrane signalling such as Hedgehog targeting and glutamate receptor ligand-affinity regulation. Here, we show that the voltage-dependent K(+) currents expressed by the intrinsic neurons of the Mushroom bodies are upward-modulated by compounds that remove sterols from the plasma membrane. Modulation seems to rely on a fast-exchanging sterol-pool, which more strongly affects the slowly inactivating current. Our results provide the first evidence that sterols influence the operation of voltage-gated ion channels in Drosophila neurons and strengthen the importance of lipid rafts in this biological model.     

Voltage- and calcium-activated currents in cultured olfactory receptor neurons of male Mamestra brassicae (Lepidoptera)

Insect olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) grown in primary cultures were studied using the patch-clamp technique in both conventional and amphotericin B perforated whole-cell configurations under voltage-clamp conditions. After 10-24 days in vitro, ORNs had a mean resting potential of -62 mV and an average input resistance of 3.2 GOmega. Five different voltage-dependent ionic currents were isolated: one Na(+), one Ca(2+) and three K(+) currents. The Na(+) current (35-300 pA) activated between -50 and -30 mV and was sensitive to 1 microM tetrodotoxin (TTX). The sustained Ca(2+) current activated between -30 and -20 mV, reached a maximum amplitude at 0 mV (-4.5 +/- 6.0 pA) that increased when Ba(2+) was added to the bath and was blocked by 1 mM Co(2+). Total outward currents were composed of three K(+) currents: a Ca(2+)-activated K(+) current activated between -40 and -30 mV and reached a maximum amplitude at +40 mV (605 +/- 351 pA); a delayed-rectifier K(+) current activated between -30 and -10 mV, had a mean amplitude of 111 +/- 67 pA at +60 mV and was inhibited by 20 mM tetraethylammonium (TEA); and, finally, more than half of ORNs exhibited an A-like current strongly dependent on the holding potential and inhibited by 5 mM 4-aminopyridine (4-AP). Pheromone stimulation evoked inward current as measured by single channel recordings.     

Regulation of neuronal K(+) currents by target-derived factors: opposing actions of two different isoforms of TGFbeta.

The developmental expression of macroscopic Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents in chick ciliary ganglion neurons is dependent on an avian ortholog of TGFbeta1, known as TGFbeta4, secreted from target tissues in the eye. Here we report that a different isoform, TGFbeta3, is also expressed in a target tissue of ciliary ganglion neurons. Application of TGFbeta3 inhibits the functional expression of whole-cell Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents evoked by 12 hour treatment with either TGFbeta1 or beta-neuregulin-1 in ciliary ganglion neurons developing in vitro. TGFbeta3 had no effect on voltage-activated Ca(2+) currents. A neutralizing antiserum specific for TGFbeta3 potentiates stimulation of Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents evoked by a target tissue (iris) extract in cultured ciliary ganglion neurons, indicating that TGFbeta3 is an inhibitory component of these extracts. Intraocular injection of TGFbeta3 causes a modest but significant inhibition of the expression of Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents in ciliary ganglion neurons developing in vivo. Further, intraocular injection of a TGFbeta3-neutralizing antiserum stimulates expression of Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents in ciliary ganglion neurons developing in vivo, indicating that endogenous TGFbeta3 regulates the functional expression of this current. The normal developmental expression of functional Ca(2+)-activated K(+) currents in ciliary ganglion neurons developing in vivo is therefore regulated by two different target-derived isoforms of TGFbeta, which produce opposing effects on the electrophysiological differentiation of these neurons.