The conflict between vervet monkeys and farmers at the forest edge in Entebbe, Uganda

Forty‐seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were questioned about vervet monkey activities on their property. Our main objective was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have reported that farms located within 300 m of a forested boundary probably incur the greatest risk of crop‐raiding. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to vervet crop‐raiding were also examined: the types of crops grown and the types of direct preventative measures used. The effect of these two factors on vervet crop‐raiding is not straightforward. However, the distance a property is located from the forest edge is an important factor influencing vervet crop‐raiding. Surveyed gardens 200 m from the forest edge received significantly less crop‐raiding than farms located 100 m or 50 m (P = 0.040, < α = 0.05). We suggest that the development of nonagricultural activities on land directly adjacent to forested areas may reduce vervet crop‐raiding by deterring vervets from travelling greater distances from the forest edge due to increased obstacles or risks.     

Effects of prey refuges on a predator-prey model with a class of functional responses: The role of refuges

In this paper, the effects of refuges used by prey on a predator-prey interaction with a class of functional responses are studied by using the analytical approach. The refuges are considered as two types: a constant proportion of prey and a fixed number of prey using refuges. We will evaluate the effects with regard to the local stability of the interior equilibrium point, the values of the equilibrium density and the long-term dynamics of the interacting populations. The results show that the effects of refuges used by prey increase the equilibrium density of prey population while decrease that of predators. It is also proved that the effects of refuges can stabilize the interior equilibrium point of the considered model, and destabilize it under a very restricted set of conditions which is disagreement with previous results in this field.     

Mortality of geese as a result of collision with the ground

Two incidents are reported in which groups of migrating wild geese were found dead in agricultural fields in southern Manitoba during spring. In each case, the birds died overnight and poisoning was suspected; however, the birds had lesions of severe traumatic injury. The first incident, in 1985, involved about 150 lesser snow geese (Anser caerulescens caerulescens); the second, in 2003, involved 62 Canada geese (Branta canadensis). Both incidents occurred on dark, moonless nights. One possible explanation is that the birds became disoriented in a manner analogous to spatial disorientation described in aircraft pilots and flew as a flock directly into the earth. In the first incident, geese might have been frightened by sonic booms from aircraft; in the second, there was a thunderstorm with strong gusty winds in the area.     

Conflicts between humans over wildlife management: on the diversity of stakeholder attitudes and implications for conflict management

Conflicts involving wildlife are, in essence, often conflicts between human parties with differing wildlife management objectives. However, the study and management of wildlife conflicts often focuses on the ecological context without addressing disagreements between people over these objectives. This research uses quantitative approaches to examine actors’ views on a complex wildlife-related conflict: a raptor of conservation concern that impacts on game-bird management. Four dominant elements of the debate emerged from initial semi-structured interviews: perceptions of conflict related issues; perceptions of each other; perceived barriers to consensus within the debate; and assessment of proposed practical management solutions. A quantitative survey that built on these elements demonstrates the degree to which perceptions differ between groups and how local variation in these elements may be obscured in a regional or national level debate. The findings emphasise the importance of understanding the social issues involved in wildlife related conflicts if management aims are to be agreed and achieved.     

The role of sea anemones as refuges and feeding habitats for the temperate fish Oxylebius pictus

Synopsis This study describes an association between the temperate zone fish Oxylebius pictus and sea anemones in Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Fish were observed swimming and resting unharmed among the tentacles, or next to a column of Urticina lofotensis (98% of all observations) and U. piscivora (2% of all observations). These associations were most commonly observed at moderately exposed sites where there were relatively high densities of O. pictus and anemones. Most associations occurred at night when the fish were inactive. Small young-of-year fish (< 6 cm total length) associated closely with sea anemones, larger individuals spent less time with their hosts, and most adults (> 12 cm total length) sheltered in rock holes and crevices. Experiments demonstrated that small O. pictus were more vulnerable to predators than large individuals. Urticina lofotensis and U. piscivora were large, persistent structures in the study habitats that provided effective refuge for O. pictus from predators. Anemone size, shape, tentacular adhesive force, and presence of copepod associates influenced patterns of host specificity. Oxylebius pictus fed on copepods and other crustaceans that associated with U. lofotensis and host sea anemones served as both refuges and feeding habitats for the fish. The sea anemones did not appear to receive any significant benefit from the relationship and the fish was considered to be a facultative commensal.     

提示线索位置影响斜线任务中Flanker与Simon冲突间的交互作用

目的：本文探讨Flanker与Simon冲突间的交互作用,以及提示线索位置对其的影响。方法：实验通过将Flanker与Simon两种冲突融合于同一范式,采用斜线任务提高冲突难度,设计上下、左右和斜线三种位置提示线索,并根据其类型的不同将被试分为三组。统计分析冲突下的正确率与反应时数据,用重复测量方差分析得出两种冲突的交互作用,以及不同位置线索对其的影响。结果：总的来说,Flanker冲突和Simon冲突在反应时和正确率上都有显著效应。从正确率来看,上下位置线索时,Flanker和Simon冲突之间的交互作用显著;左右位置线索时交互作用不显著;而斜线位置线索时交互作用边缘显著。从反应时来看,对于三种位置线索,两种冲突间的交互作用都不显著。结论：融合在同一任务中的Flanker冲突与Simon冲突之间是否存在交互作用与提示线索的位置有关。     

The role of lesser snow geese as nitrogen processors in a sub-arctic salt marsh

Summary Ammonia volatilization losses from faeces of Lesser Snow Geese were measured during the summer of 1987 on the salt-marsh flats at La Pérouse Bay. Amounts of ammonia volatilized increased with increasing ambient temperature, and ranged from 1.0 to 15.1 mg N per 100 mg of nitrogen present as soluble ammonium ions at the start of the 8-h experiment. Using estimates of faecal deposition reported previously, the annual loss via volatilization was estimated at 0.08 g N m^-2, or 7.9% of the nitrogen present in goose faeces. Percent change in soluble ammonium ions in fresh faeces after 8 h ranged from -51.1% to +41.1%, indicating that net mineralization of organic nitrogen occurred in some of the faeces. Microbial respiration of fresh goose faeces increased exponentially with temperature. However, variable rates of net mineralization per unit rate of respiration indicated that the substrate quality affected microbial immobilization and thus net nitrogen mineralization. In feeding experiments, captive goslings grazed different types of vegetation, each with distinctive nutritional qualities. Forage quality had significant effects on goose feeding behavior and subsequent rates of nitrogen mineralization in fresh faeces. Net nitrogen mineralization rates in faeces from geese which grazed the three vegetation types ranged from 1.31 to 4.97 mg NH₄⁺–N g_DW^-1 24 h^-1. Because plant growth in this salt marsh is nitrogen-limited, where swards are grazed, mineralization of organic faecal nitrogen represents an essential link in the maintenance of the flow of nitrogen into the sediments and the sustained growth of vegetation at a time when most required by the geese.     

Sexual conflict as a partitioning of selection

Sexual conflict appears to be a powerful force in evolution. We suggest that selection theory can readily be adapted for cases of sexual conflict and illustrate how it can provide a new perspective on what traits cause conflict and might respond to its presence. Use of selection theory resolves some terminological confusion, provides operational measures of conflict and generates a conceptual tool for parsing the causes and consequences of conflict in complex systems of male–female interactions.     

Lack of competition between barnacle geese Branta leucopsis and pink-footed geese Anser brachyrhynchus during the pre-breeding period in Svalbard

The feeding ecology of barnacle geese and pink-footed geese was studied in Sassendalen, Svalbard during the pre-nesting period (late May) to assess the potential for inter-specific competition. Barnacle geese fed almost exclusively (97%) by grazing above-ground plant material, mostly (79%) along snow edges in moss-mat habitats. Pink-footed geese fed mostly (93%) by excavating below-ground parts of plants, mostly (56%) away from snow and were more evenly distributed between habitat types. Barnacle goose faeces contained mostly (62%) moss, that of pink-footed geese mostly (48%) below-ground plant storage organs (especially Bistorta viviparum L.). Principal components analysis of dropping contents showed no overlap in species diet in allopatry or sympatry. There was little overlap in diet and feeding ecology of the two species at this pre-nesting feeding site. Hence, unless increased goose feeding densities affect future vegetation density and composition, under present circumstances, increasing numbers of either species is unlikely to affect foraging conditions for the other at this important stage in the annual cycle. However, such changes could have local density-dependent intra-specific effects.     

The conflict between humans and elephants in the central African forests

Elephants and humans each suffer from the presence of the other when they occupy the same forests. Farmers risk losing their crops to elephants, while elephants are displaced by settlements, agriculture, roads and development projects. Elephants have also been hunted for ivory. The ivory trade in the equatorial forests expanded in the nineteenth century as Europe prospered, and then again in the twentieth century as the Far East prospered. Forest elephant numbers were depleted each time.
Elephants are unpopular in the forest zone, and increasing human populations combined with the spread of democracy in central Africa pose a major threat to their future. If elephants are to be tolerated by villagers living in the equatorial forests, the costs they impose must be reduced and the benefits to the rural populace must be increased. A three-pronged strategy is suggested, involving land-use planning, measures to mitigate crop damage, and programmes to enhance the value of elephants. Elephants could be viewed as assets if their importance in the forest ecosystem were recognized, if they were domesticated for logging or transport, or if their presence was one of the factors which attracted tourists to the forest zone. However, management strategies based on hunting have the best chance of conserving elephants because of the importance of hunting in the culture of the forest people. Sport hunting for trophies may bring the greatest revenues. Community wildlife-management programmes, where village councils make the decisions, could prevent overexploitation. There are no simple answers, however, because one form of management may conflict with the goals of another.     

The evolution of mutualisms: exploring the paths between conflict and cooperation

Mutualisms are of fundamental importance in all ecosystems but their very existence poses a series of challenging evolutionary questions. Recently, the application of molecular analyses combined with theoretical advances have transformed our understanding of many specific systems, thereby contributing to the possibility of a more general understanding of the factors that influence mutualisms.     

The blood incubation infectivity test as a means of distinguishing between Trypanosoma brucei brucei and T. brucei rhodesiense

Targett G. A. T. and Wilson V. C. L. C. 1973. The blood incubation infectivity test as a means of distinguishing between Trypanosoma brucei brucei and T. brucei rhodesiense. International Journal for Parasitology, 3: 5–11. A simple test for distinguishing between the morphologically identical subspecies Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which is infective to man, and T. brucei brucei, which by definition is not, has been described. This test, the blood incubation infectivity test (BIIT), is based on absolute differences in the infectivity to rats of the subspecies after exposure to human blood, and was applied to strains which are preserved in the laboratory as stabilates. Five T. brucei brucei strains were BIIT negative since their infectivity was destroyed by incubation in normal human blood but only five of the nine T. brucei rhodesiense strains tested were consistently BIIT positive. The other four gave equivocal results, indicating that the resistance of T. brucei rhodesiense strains to the trypanocidal effect of human blood can change, probably as a result of maintenance in the laboratory.     

The value of terrestrial ecotones as refuges for winter damselflies (Odonata: Lestidae)

Habitat requirements of many species may vary significantly throughout the lifecycle. Species are often forced to exchange their habitats to meet requirements of different life stages. Due to the effect of human activities, however, there is a loss of habitat complexity and a consequent disappearance of species associated with multiple habitat types. This also applies to freshwater invertebrates occurring in temporary habitats. However, it appears that many species are able to meet their habitat requirements even in a human-altered landscape. The aim of this study was to analyze the habitat preferences of the damselfly Sympecma fusca in an area significantly influenced by human interventions. According to the results of a capture-mark-recapture study and generalized additive models, I found that, during a pre-reproductive period (in the autumn), imagoes utilize predominantly insolated ecotones, which constitute only a small fraction of the available terrestrial habitat. During the reproductive period (in spring), however, imagoes completely change their priorities in favor of reproductive success. At this time, males use ecotones only in adverse weather conditions. Ecotones allow the species to survive a long pre-reproductive period. However, suitable habitat conditions may be lost because of inappropriate interventions (e.g., mowing). These small-scale interventions often resemble natural disturbances and may not necessarily lead to the extinction of an entire population. Imagoes are able to move on to different habitat patches, but only if they have alternative habitats. This outcome indicates that maintaining a high heterogeneity of keystone structures is crucial for maintaining high levels of biodiversity.     

Cooperation and conflict between women in the family

Here I review recent research on reproductive conflict between females in families and how it influences their reproductive behaviour. Kin selection can favor cooperation between parent and offspring, siblings, or unrelated co‐residents who share interests in other family members such as grand‐offspring. However, these are also the individuals most likely to be sharing resources, and so conflict can also emerge. While substantial interest has arisen in evolutionary anthropology, especially over the last two decades, in the possibility of cooperative breeding in humans, less attention has been paid to reproductive conflict among female kin. Communal breeding in animals is generally understood as emerging from competition over the resources needed to breed. Competition for household resources is a problem that also faces human families. Models suggest that in some circumstances, inclusive fitness can be maximized by sharing reproduction rather than harming relatives by fighting with them, even if the shares that emerge are not equal. Thus, competition and cooperation turn out to be strongly related to each other. Reproductive competition within and between families may have underpinned the biological evolution of fertility patterns (such as menopause) and the cultural evolution of marriage, residence, and inheritance norms (such as late male marriage or primogeniture), which can enhance cooperation and minimize the observed incidence of such conflicts.     

The conflict between natural and artificial selection in finite populations

Summary A single locus model of the interaction between natural selection and artificial selection for a quantitative character in a finite population, assuming heterozygote superiority in natural fitness but additive action on the character, has been studied using transition probability matrices.If natural selection is strong enough to create a selection plateau in which genetic variance declines relatively slowly, then the total response to artificial selection prior to the plateau will be much less than that expected in the absence of natural selection, and the half-life of response will be shorter. Such a plateau is likely to have a large proportion, if not all, of the original genetic variance still present. In selection programmes using laboratory animals, it seems likely that the homozygote favoured by artificial selection must be very unfit before such a plateau will occur. A significant decrease in population fitness as a result of artificial selection does not necessarily imply that the metric character is an important adaptive character.These implications of this model of natural selection are very similar to those derived by James (1962) for the optimum model of natural selection. In fact, there seems to be no aspect of the observable response to artificial selection that would enable anyone to distinguish between these two models of natural selection.