Modern trends in perimetry

In this review of perimetry the subject is treated in two main sections. Part I discusses developments, particularly during the last thirty years, in classical clinical perimetry including the topics of kinetic and static perimetry, the use of multiple stimuli and the role of automation and objective techniques. Part II describes the development of various special techniques designed for more specific information about visual function. These include reference to the importance of controlling target illuminance, the value of spatial and temporal summation in perimetry and the use of coloured targets. The paper concludes by emphasizing the clinical value of routine field screening and the urgent need for standardization in perimetry.     

Precipitation of animal plasma proteins by puff-adder venom.

1. Plasma and serum samples obtained from various animals never previously exposed to snakes or snake venom were diffused against different concentrations of puff-adder, Bitis arietans, venom using the double immunodiffusion technique. 2. Depending upon venom concentration, two precipitin arcs could be produced in the case of all plasma samples used. No serum samples showed any arcs except pigeon serum, where one precipitin line was observed. 3. By altering the concentration of snake venom between 1% and 10% when immunodiffusing against plasma a change in position of the precipitin lines was observed and also the disappearance of one or both of the two bands at higher concentrations. This indicates that the arcs observed are in all probability due to precipitation of plasma protein fractions. 4. Previous results indicated that one of the two bands observed when diffusing venom against plasma was due to the precipitation of fibrinogen. By diffusing snake venom against heparin we have now shown that the second band involves this molecule and is not due to another coagulation factor as was suggested previously.     

Modern problems of population genetics in animal husbandry

Summary Knowledge in animal husbandry derives from a complex of disciplines, and in this review the theory of one of these (population genetics) is discussed with regard to animal improvement, but with consideration of its implications in the other disciplines together with contributions from these to animal improvement programmes.The conventional programme for genetic improvement is outlined, but with particular emphasis placed on the lack of knowledge as to just what constitutes an adequate foundation population and what procedures will provide maximum total response to selection. An adequate foundation population is one containing as wide a sample as possible of the genetic variability existing in the species, and it is argued that genes of low initial frequency may comprise a significant proportion of the genetic variability available to selection. Further, a significant proportion of this variability may result from the segregation of a relatively small number of genes of large effect. The need for detailed information on the nature of gene action determining quantitative variation is emphasised.Maximisation of foundation population size is of prime importance, while the effective population size in subsequent generations of selection will largely determine total response to selection. Because of the restricted size of breeding programmes, selection responses will generally cease at less than the possible limit, so that methods of breaking through such apparent limits are discussed.In practical breeding programmes, a number of characters are generally under selection, and improvement then depends on genetic correlations among these characters. But to predict changes under selection, or to interpret those that have occurred, the basic causes of genetic correlations must be understood. Such understanding is further complicated by the possibility of change in magnitude or even direction of a genetic correlation during selection.Contributions from anatomy, physiology and animal behaviour are discussed in terms of information relevant to the definition of breeding objectives, optimum husbandry techniques, and limits to intensification in animal management. Artificial insemination has revolutionised dairy cattle breeding, and the development of techniques for oestrus synchronisation make more practical its use in other species. The implications of super-ovulation and egg transfer and modification of sex ratio on breeding programmes are considered, and the review concludes with a plea for information on the economics of breeding programmes.

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Zusammenfassung Grundlage der Entwicklung der Tierzüchtung sind die Erkenntnisse einer Reihe von Wissensgebieten. In der vorliegenden Übersicht wird über eine dieser Disziplinen, die Populationsgenetik, berichtet, und zwar speziell über die Theorie der Verbesserung von Leistungseigenschaften unter Einbeziehung anderer Disziplinen und ihrer Beiträge zum Tierzüchtungsprogramm.Es wird das konventionelle Programm für eine genetische Leistungssteigerung skizziert, aber mit besonderem Nachdruck darauf hingewiesen, daß keine genaue Kenntnis darüber besteht, was als angemessene Ausgangspopulation anzusehen ist und welche Maßnahmen den größten Selektionserfolg sichern. Eine angemessene Ausgangspopulation sollte die in der Spezies vorhandene genetische Variabilität im größtmöglichen Umfange enthalten, und es wird die Ansicht vertreten, daß Gene, die in der Ausgangspopulation mit geringer Frequenz vorhanden sind, doch einen signifikanten Anteil der einer Selektion zugänglichen genetischen Variablität ausmachen. Ein weiterer signifikanter Anteil dieser Variabilität dürfte aus der Spaltung einer relativ geringen Anzahl von Majorgenen herrühren. Die Notwendigkeit eingehender Unterrichtung über die Art der Genwirkung, welche die quantitative Variabilität bestimmt, wird betont.Es ist von primärer Wichtigkeit, die Ausgangspopulation so groß wie möglich vorzusehen, der Selektionserfolg in den folgenden Generationen wird wesentlich durch die vorhandene Populationsgröße bestimmt. Infolge der beschränkten Größe der Züchtungsprogramme erreicht die Selektion in der Regel nicht das Mögliche; Methoden zur Durchbrechung solcher Grenzen werden besprochen.In praktischen Züchtungsprogrammen wird im allgemeinen auf eine Reihe von Eigenschaften selektiert, die Leistungssteigerung hängt dann von den genetischen Korrelationen zwischen diesen Eigenschaften ab. Um aber durch Selektion zu bewirkende Veränderungen abschätzen oder aufgetretene erklären zu können, ist es notwendig, die Ursachen der genetischen Korrelation zu erkennen. Das wird durch die Möglichkeit von Stärke- oder sogar Richtungsänderungen der Korrelationen während der Selektion erschwert.Es wird schließlich über die Beiträge anderer Disziplinen, wie Anatomie, Physiologie, Verhaltensforschung, zur Festlegung der Zuchtziele, zu den besten Zuchttechniken und bezüglich der Grenzen einer Intensivierung der Tierhaltung berichtet. Die künstliche Besamung hat eine Revolution in der Rinderzüchtung bewirkt und durch die Entwicklung von Techniken zur Synchronisation des Geschlechtszyklus wird ihre Anwendung auch bei anderen Arten möglich. Es werden die Auswirkungen von Super-Ovulation und Ei-Übertragung sowie der Veränderungen des Geschlechtsverhältnisses behandelt. Die Übersicht schließt mit dem Ersuchen, daß auch über Fragen der Ökonomik von Züchtungsprogrammen informiert werden sollte.

     

Secular trends of annual morbidities of animal infectious diseases

Supposing two mathematical models, additive and multiplicative, the authors estimated the secular trends of annual morbidities (1949 approximately 1975) of twelve infectious diseases of domestic animals. For each diseases ten different trend curves were fitted. It was found that five regression equations, namely, those for bovine trichomoniasis, bovine tuberculosis, equine infectious anemia, pullorum disease in chickens, and foulbrood, gave the coefficient of determination of 97.9, 92.7, 91.0, 93.5, and 85.2%, respectively. Four of them were multiplicative, and the remaining one for equine infectious anemia was additive. From the viewpoint of practical utility, there was little doubt that even these secular trends might be used for predicting the relevant morbidities with fairly good preciseness.     

Large-scale trends in the evolution of gene structures within 11 animal genomes

We have used the annotations of six animal genomes (Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Ciona intestinalis, Drosophila melanogaster, Anopheles gambiae, and Caenorhabditis elegans) together with the sequences of five unannotated Drosophila genomes to survey changes in protein sequence and gene structure over a variety of timescales—from the less than 5 million years since the divergence of D. simulans and D. melanogaster to the more than 500 million years that have elapsed since the Cambrian explosion. To do so, we have developed a new open-source software library called CGL (for “Comparative Genomics Library”). Our results demonstrate that change in intron–exon structure is gradual, clock-like, and largely independent of coding-sequence evolution. This means that genome annotations can be used in new ways to inform, corroborate, and test conclusions drawn from comparative genomics analyses that are based upon protein and nucleotide sequence similarities.     

Evolutionary trends in animal ribosomal DNA loci: introduction to a new online database

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) loci encoding 5S and 45S (18S-5.8S-28S) rRNAs are important components of eukaryotic chromosomes. Here, we set up the animal rDNA database containing cytogenetic information about these loci in 1343 animal species (264 families) collected from 542 publications. The data are based on in situ hybridisation studies (both radioactive and fluorescent) carried out in major groups of vertebrates (fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals) and invertebrates (mostly insects and mollusks). The database is accessible online at www.animalrdnadatabase.com. The median number of 45S and 5S sites was close to two per diploid chromosome set for both rDNAs despite large variation (1–74 for 5S and 1–54 for 45S sites). No significant correlation between the number of 5S and 45S rDNA loci was observed, suggesting that their distribution and amplification across the chromosomes follow independent evolutionary trajectories. Each group, irrespective of taxonomic classification, contained rDNA sites at any chromosome location. However, the distal and pericentromeric positions were the most prevalent (>?75% karyotypes) for 45S loci, while the position of 5S loci was more variable. We also examined potential relationships between molecular attributes of rDNA (homogenisation and expression) and cytogenetic parameters such as rDNA positions, chromosome number, and morphology.     

Use of nanomaterials in capillary and microchip electrophoresis

This review gives an overview of different separation strategies with nanomaterials and their use in capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography, as well as in microchip electrophoresis, including metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, fullerene and polymer nanoparticles, as well as silica nanoparticles. The paper highlights the new developments and innovative applications of nanoparticles as pseudostationary phases or immobilized on the capillary surface for CE separation. The separation and characterization of target nanoparticles with different sizes by CE are reviewed likewise.     

Use of nanomaterials in capillary and microchip electrophoresis

This review gives an overview of different separation strategies with nanomaterials and their use in capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography, as well as in microchip electrophoresis, including metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, fullerene and polymer nanoparticles, as well as silica nanoparticles. The paper highlights the new developments and innovative applications of nanoparticles as pseudostationary phases or immobilized on the capillary surface for CE separation. The separation and characterization of target nanoparticles with different sizes by CE are reviewed likewise.     

Prion-based nanomaterials and their emerging applications

ABSTRACT

Protein misfolding and aggregation into highly ordered fibrillar structures have been traditionally associated with pathological processes. Nevertheless, nature has taken advantage of the particular properties of amyloids for functional purposes, like in the protection of organisms against environmental changing conditions. Over the last decades, these fibrillar structures have inspired the design of new nanomaterials with intriguing applications in biomedicine and nanotechnology such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, adhesive materials, biodegradable nanocomposites, nanowires or biosensors. Prion and prion-like proteins, which are considered a subclass of amyloids, are becoming ideal candidates for the design of new and tunable nanomaterials. In this review, we discuss the particular properties of this kind of proteins, and the current advances on the design of new materials based on prion sequences.     

The Yin and Yang of carbon nanomaterials in atherosclerosis

With unique characteristics such as high surface area, capacity of various functionalization, low weight, high conductivity, thermal and chemical stability, and free radical scavenging, carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerene, graphene (oxide), carbon nanohorns (CNHs), and their derivatives have increasingly been utilized in nanomedicine and biomedicine. On the one hand, owing to ever-increasing applications of CNMs in technological and industrial fields as well as presence of combustion-derived CNMs in the ambient air, the skepticism has risen over the adverse effects of CNMs on human being. The influences of CNMs on cardiovascular system and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as atherosclerosis, of which consequences are ischemic heart disease and ischemic stroke, as the main causes of death, is of paramount importance. In this regard, several studies have been devoted to specify the biomedical applications and cardiovascular toxicity of CNMs. Therefore, the aim of this review is to specify the roles and applications of various CNMs in atherosclerosis, and also identify the key role playing parameters in cardiovascular toxicity of CNMs so as to be a clue for prospective deployment of CNMs.     

Multifaceted applications of nanomaterials in cell engineering and therapy

Nanomaterials with superior physiochemical properties have been rapidly developed and integrated in every aspect of cell engineering and therapy for translating their great promise to clinical success. Here we demonstrate the multifaceted roles played by innovatively-designed nanomaterials in addressing key challenges in cell engineering and therapy such as cell isolation from heterogeneous cell population, cell instruction in vitro to enable desired functionalities, and targeted cell delivery to therapeutic sites for prompting tissue repair. The emerging trends in this interdisciplinary and dynamic field are also highlighted, where the nanomaterial-engineered cells constitute the basis for establishing in vitro disease model; and nanomaterial-based in situ cell engineering are accomplished directly within the native tissue in vivo. We will witness the increasing importance of nanomaterials in revolutionizing the concept and toolset of cell engineering and therapy which will enrich our scientific understanding of diseases and ultimately fulfill the therapeutic demand in clinical medicine.