Knock-downs of iron-sulfur cluster assembly proteins IscS and IscU down-regulate the active mitochondrion of procyclic Trypanosoma brucei

Transformation of the metabolically down-regulated mitochondrion of the mammalian bloodstream stage of Trypanosoma brucei to the ATP-producing mitochondrion of the insect procyclic stage is accompanied by the de novo synthesis of citric acid cycle enzymes and components of the respiratory chain. Because these metabolic pathways contain multiple iron-sulfur (FeS) proteins, their synthesis, including the formation of FeS clusters, is required. However, nothing is known about FeS cluster biogenesis in trypanosomes, organisms that are evolutionarily distant from yeast and humans. Here we demonstrate that two mitochondrial proteins, the cysteine desulfurase TbiscS and the metallochaperone TbiscU, are functionally conserved in trypanosomes and essential for this parasite. Knock-downs of TbiscS and TbiscU in the procyclic stage by means of RNA interference resulted in reduced activity of the marker FeS enzyme aconitase in both the mitochondrion and cytosol because of the lack of FeS clusters. Moreover, down-regulation of TbiscS and TbiscU affected the metabolism of procyclic T. brucei so that their mitochondria resembled the organelle of the bloodstream stage; mitochondrial ATP production was impaired, the activity of the respiratory chain protein complex ubiquinol-cytochrome-c reductase was reduced, and the production of pyruvate as an end product of glucose metabolism was enhanced. These results indicate that mitochondrial FeS cluster assembly is indispensable for completion of the T. brucei life cycle.     

Succinate secreted by Trypanosoma brucei is produced by a novel and unique glycosomal enzyme,NADH-dependent fumarate reductase

In all trypanosomatids, including Trypanosoma brucei, glycolysis takes place in peroxisome-like organelles called glycosomes. These are closed compartments wherein the energy and redox (NAD(+)/NADH) balances need to be maintained. We have characterized a T. brucei gene called FRDg encoding a protein 35% identical to Saccharomyces cerevisiae fumarate reductases. Microsequencing of FRDg purified from glycosome preparations, immunofluorescence, and Western blot analyses clearly identified this enzyme as a glycosomal protein that is only expressed in the procyclic form of T. brucei but is present in all the other trypanosomatids studied, i.e. Trypanosoma congolense, Crithidia fasciculata and Leishmania amazonensis. The specific inactivation of FRDg gene expression by RNA interference showed that FRDg is responsible for the NADH-dependent fumarate reductase activity detected in glycosomal fractions and that at least 60% of the succinate secreted by the T. brucei procyclic form (in the presence of d-glucose as the sole carbon source) is produced in the glycosome by FRDg. We conclude that FRDg plays a key role in the energy metabolism by participating in the maintenance of the glycosomal NAD(+)/NADH balance. We have also detected a significant pyruvate kinase activity in the cytosol of the T. brucei procyclic cells that was not observed previously. Consequently, we propose a revised model of glucose metabolism in procyclic trypanosomes that may also be valid for all other trypanosomatids except the T. brucei bloodstream form. Interestingly, H. Gest has hypothesized previously (Gest, H. (1980) FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 7, 73-77) that a soluble NADH-dependent fumarate reductase has been present in primitive organisms and evolved into the present day fumarate reductases, which are quinol-dependent. FRDg may have the characteristics of such an ancestral enzyme and is the only NADH-dependent fumarate reductase characterized to date.     

Two biochemically distinct classes of fumarase in Escherichia coli

Biochemical studies with strains of Escherichia coli that are amplified for the products of the three fumarase genes, fumA (FUMA), fumB (FUMB) and fumC (FUMC), have shown that there are two distinct classes of fumarase. The Class I enzymes include FUMA, FUMB, and the immunologically related fumarase of Euglena gracilis. These are characteristically thermolabile dimeric enzymes containing identical subunits of Mr 60,000. FUMA and FUMB are differentially regulated enzymes that function in the citric acid cycle (FUMA) or to provide fumarate as an anaerobic electron acceptor (FUMB), and their affinities for fumarate and L-malate are consistent with these roles. The Class II enzymes include FUMC, and the fumarases of Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mammalian sources. They are thermostable tetrameric enzymes containing identical subunits Mr 48,000-50,000. The Class II fumarases share a high degree of sequence identity with each other (approx. 60%) and with aspartase (approx. 38%) and argininosuccinase (approx. 15%), and it would appear that these are all members of a family of structurally related enzymes. It is also suggested that the Class I enzymes may belong to a wider family of iron-dependent carboxylic acid hydro-lyases that includes maleate dehydratase and aconitase. Apart from one region containing a Gly-Ser-X-X-Met-X-X-Lys-X-Asn consensus sequence, no significant homology was detected between the Class I and Class II fumarases.     

Comparison of populations of mRNA coding fumarase in rat brain and liver

The populations of mRNA encoding mitochondrial and cytosolic fumarases in the poly A+ RNA fractions purified from polysomes of rat brain and liver were examined. When the in vitro translation products programmed by the poly A+ RNA fraction obtained from rat brain were purified by immunoprecipitation with anti-fumarase antibody and analyzed by SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and fluorography, only one polypeptide of 50 KD was detected as a precursor of fumarase. In contrast, by the same method, two polypeptides of 50 KD and 45 KD, which is the same size as mature fumarase, were detected as precursors of rat liver fumarase. These results suggest that rat brain polysomes contain only one population of mRNA coding a 50 KD precursor of mitochondrial fumarase with little or no mRNA of the cytosolic fumarase, whereas rat liver polysomes contain two types of mRNA for mitochondrial and cytosolic fumarases, respectively. These findings are consistent with the fact that the brain is the only organ in rats known not to contain cytosolic fumarase.     

A novel member of the RNase D exoribonuclease family functions in mitochondrial guide RNA metabolism in Trypanosoma brucei

RNA turnover and RNA editing are essential for regulation of mitochondrial gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei. RNA turnover is controlled in part by RNA 3' adenylation and uridylation status, with trans-acting factors also impacting RNA homeostasis. However, little is known about the mitochondrial degradation machinery or its regulation in T. brucei. We have identified a mitochondrial exoribonuclease, TbRND, whose expression is highly up-regulated in the insect proliferative stage of the parasite. TbRND shares sequence similarity with RNase D family enzymes but differs from all reported members of this family in possessing a CCHC zinc finger domain. In vitro, TbRND exhibits 3' to 5' exoribonuclease activity, with specificity toward uridine homopolymers, including the 3' oligo(U) tails of guide RNAs (gRNAs) that provide the sequence information for RNA editing. Several lines of evidence generated from RNAi-mediated knockdown and overexpression cell lines indicate that TbRND functions in gRNA metabolism in vivo. First, TbRND depletion results in gRNA tails extended by 2-3 nucleotides on average. Second, overexpression of wild type but not catalytically inactive TbRND results in a substantial decrease in the total gRNA population and a consequent inhibition of RNA editing. The observed effects on the gRNA population are specific as rRNAs, which are also 3'-uridylated, are unaffected by TbRND depletion or overexpression. Finally, we show that gRNA binding proteins co-purify with TbRND. In summary, TbRND is a novel 3' to 5' exoribonuclease that appears to have evolved a function highly specific to the mitochondrion of trypanosomes.     

Procyclic Trypanosoma brucei expresses separate sialidase and trans-sialidase enzymes on its surface membrane

The procyclic stage of Trypanosoma brucei in the insect vector expresses a surface-bound trans-sialidase (TbTS) that transfers sialic acid from glycoconjugates in the environment to glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins on its surface membrane. RNA interference against TbTS abolished trans-sialidase activity in procyclic cells but did not diminish sialidase activity, suggesting the presence of a separate sialidase enzyme for hydrolyzing sialic acid. A search of the T. brucei genome sequence revealed seven other putative genes encoding proteins with varying similarity to TbTS. RNA interference directed against one of these proteins, TbSA C, greatly decreased the sialidase activity but had no effect on trans-sialidase activity. The deduced amino acid sequence of TbSA C shares only 40% identity with TbTS but conserves most of the relevant residues required for catalysis. However, the sialidase has a tryptophan substitution for a tyrosine at position 170 that is crucial in binding the terminal galactose that accepts the transferred sialic acid. When this same tryptophan substitution in the sialidase was placed into the recombinant trans-sialidase, the mutant enzyme lost almost all of its trans-sialidase activity and increased its sialidase activity, further confirming that the gene and protein identified correspond to the parasite sialidase. Thus, in contrast to all other trypanosomes analyzed to date that express either a trans-sialidase or a sialidase but not both, T. brucei expresses these two enzymatic activities in two separate proteins. These results suggest that African trypanosomes could regulate the amount of critical sialic acid residues on their surface by modulating differential expression of each of these enzymes.     

Trypanosoma brucei FLA1 is required for flagellum attachment and cytokinesis

The single flagellum of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei is attached along the length of the cell body by a complex structure that requires the FLA1 protein. We show here that inhibition of FLA1 expression by RNA interference in procyclic trypanosomes causes flagellar detachment and prevents cytokinesis. Despite being unable to divide, these cells undergo mitosis and develop a multinucleated phenotype. The Trypanosoma cruzi FLA1 homolog, GP72, is unable to complement either the flagellar detachment or cytokinesis defects in procyclic T. brucei that have been depleted of FLA1 by RNA interference. Instead, GP72 itself caused flagellar detachment when expressed in T. brucei. In contrast to T. brucei cells depleted of FLA1, procyclic T. brucei expressing GP72 continued to divide despite having detached flagella, demonstrating that flagellar attachment is not absolutely necessary for cytokinesis. We have also identified a FLA1-related gene (FLA2) whose sequence is similar but not identical to FLA1. Inhibition of FLA1 and FLA2 expression in bloodstream T. brucei caused flagellar detachment and blocked cytokinesis but did not inhibit mitosis. These experiments demonstrate that the FLA proteins are essential and suggest that in procyclic T. brucei, the FLA1 protein has separable functions in flagellar attachment and cytokinesis.     

Non-canonical eukaryotic glutaminyl- and glutamyl-tRNA synthetases form mitochondrial aminoacyl-tRNA in Trypanosoma brucei

Glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase is thought to be absent from organelles. Instead, Gln-tRNA is formed via the transamidation pathway, the other route to this essential compound in protein biosynthesis. However, it was previously shown that glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase activity is present in Leishmania mitochondria. This work identifies genes encoding glutaminyl- and glutamyl-tRNA synthetase in the closely related organism Trypanosoma brucei. Down-regulation of their respective gene products by RNA interference showed that (i) they are essential for the growth of insect stage T. brucei and (ii) they are responsible for essentially all of the glutaminyl- and glutamyl-tRNA synthetase activity detected in both the cytosol and the mitochondria. In vitro aminoacylation experiments with the recombinant T. brucei enzymes and total tRNA confirmed the identity of the two aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Interestingly, T. brucei uses the same eukaryotic-type glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase to form mitochondrial and cytosolic Gln-tRNA. The formation of Glu-tRNA in mitochondria and the cytoplasm is catalyzed by a single eukaryotic-type discriminating glutamyl-tRNA synthetase. T. brucei, similar to Leishmania, imports all of its mitochondrial tRNAs from the cytosol. The use of these two eukaryotic-type enzymes in mitochondria may therefore reflect an adaptation to the situation in which the cytosol and mitochondria use the same set of tRNAs.     

ATP generation in the Trypanosoma brucei procyclic form: cytosolic substrate level is essential, but not oxidative phosphorylation

Trypanosoma brucei is a parasitic protist responsible for sleeping sickness in humans. The procyclic form of this parasite, transmitted by tsetse flies, is considered to be dependent on oxidative phosphorylation for ATP production. Indeed, its respiration was 55% inhibited by oligomycin, which is the most specific inhibitor of the mitochondrial F0/F1-ATP synthase. However, a 10-fold excess of this compound did not significantly affect the intracellular ATP concentration and the doubling time of the parasite was only 1.5-fold increased, suggesting that oxidative phosphorylation is not essential for procyclic trypanosomes. To further investigate the sites of ATP production, we studied the role of two ATP producing enzymes, which are involved in the synthesis of pyruvate from phosphoenolpyruvate: the glycosomal pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) and the cytosolic pyruvate kinase (PYK). The parasite was not affected by PPDK gene knockout. In contrast, inhibition of PYK expression by RNA interference was lethal for these cells. In the absence of PYK activity, the intracellular ATP concentration was reduced by up to 2.3-fold, whereas the intracellular pyruvate concentration was not reduced. Furthermore, we show that this mutant cell line still excreted acetate from d-glucose metabolism, and both the wild type and mutant cell lines consumed pyruvate present in the growth medium with similar high rates, indicating that in the absence of PYK activity pyruvate is still present in the trypanosomes. We conclude that PYK is essential because of its ATP production, which implies that the cytosolic substrate level phosphorylation is essential for the growth of procyclic trypanosomes.     

A developmentally regulated aconitase related to iron-regulatory protein-1 is localized in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondrion of Trypanosoma brucei

Mitochondrial energy metabolism and Krebs cycle activities are developmentally regulated in the life cycle of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Here we report cloning of a T. brucei aconitase gene that is closely related to mammalian iron-regulatory protein 1 (IRP-1) and plant aconitases. Kinetic analysis of purified recombinant TbACO expressed in Escherichia coli resulted in a K(m) (isocitrate) of 3 +/- 0.4 mM, similar to aconitases of other organisms. This was unexpected since an arginine conserved in the aconitase protein family and crucial for substrate positioning in the catalytic center and for activity of pig mitochondrial aconitase (Zheng, L., Kennedy, M. C., Beinert, H., and Zalkin, H. (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267, 7895-7903) is substituted by leucine in the TbACO sequence. Expression of the 98-kDa TbACO was shown to be lowest in the slender bloodstream stage of the parasite, 8-fold elevated in the stumpy stage, and increased a further 4-fold in the procyclic stage. The differential expression of TbACO protein contrasted with only minor changes in TbACO mRNA, indicating translational or post-translational mechanisms of regulation. Whereas animal cells express two distinct compartmentalized aconitases, mitochondrial aconitase and cytoplasmic aconitase/IRP-1, TbACO accounts for total aconitase activity in trypanosomes. By cell fractionation and immunofluorescence microscopy, we show that native as well as a transfected epitope-tagged TbACO localizes in both the mitochondrion (30%) and in the cytoplasm (70%). Together with phylogenetic reconstructions of the aconitase family, this suggests that animal IRPs have evolved from a multicompartmentalized ancestral aconitase. The possible functions of a cytoplasmic aconitase in trypanosomes are discussed.     

Distinct genes encode type II Topoisomerases for the nucleus and mitochondrion in the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei

Topoisomerases are essential for orderly nucleic acid metabolism and cell survival and are proven targets for clinically useful antimicrobial and anticancer drugs. Interest in the topologically intricate mitochondrial DNA (kinetoplast or kDNA) of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and related kinetoplastid protozoan parasites has led to many reports of type II topoisomerases that participate in kDNA metabolism (we term the T. brucei brucei gene TbTOP2mt). We have now identified and characterized two new genes for type II topoisomerases in T. brucei brucei, termed TbTOP2alpha and TbTOP2beta. Phylogenetically, they share a common node with other nuclear topoisomerases, clearly distinct from a clade that includes the previously reported kinetoplastid genes, all of which are homologs of TbTOP2mt. Southern blot analysis reveals the new genes are single copy and positioned approximately 1.7 kb apart. Cognate mRNAs are expressed in African trypanosomes, but only a single message is detected in Leishmania or Crithidia. TbTOP2alpha encodes an ATP-dependent topoisomerase that appears as a single approximately 170-kDa band on immunoblots and localizes to the nucleus; RNA interference leads to pleomorphic nuclear (but not kDNA) abnormalities and early growth arrest. The role of TbTOP2beta is unclear. Although transcribed in trypanosomes, TbTOP2beta is not detected by beta-specific antiserum, and RNAi silencing results in no obvious phenotype. These studies indicate that African trypanosomes and related kinetoplastid human pathogens are unusual in having independent topoisomerase II genes to service their nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, and they highlight TbTOP2alpha as a promising target for the development of much-needed new therapies.     

Stem-loop silencing reveals that a third mitochondrial DNA polymerase, POLID, is required for kinetoplast DNA replication in trypanosomes

Kinetoplast DNA (kDNA), the mitochondrial genome of trypanosomes, is a catenated network containing thousands of minicircles and tens of maxicircles. The topological complexity dictates some unusual features including a topoisomerase-mediated release-and-reattachment mechanism for minicircle replication and at least six mitochondrial DNA polymerases (Pols) for kDNA transactions. Previously, we identified four family A DNA Pols from Trypanosoma brucei with similarity to bacterial DNA Pol I and demonstrated that two (POLIB and POLIC) were essential for maintaining the kDNA network, while POLIA was not. Here, we used RNA interference to investigate the function of POLID in procyclic T. brucei. Stem-loop silencing of POLID resulted in growth arrest and the progressive loss of the kDNA network. Additional defects in kDNA replication included a rapid decline in minicircle and maxicircle abundance and a transient accumulation of minicircle replication intermediates before loss of the kDNA network. These results demonstrate that POLID is a third essential DNA Pol required for kDNA replication. While other eukaryotes utilize a single DNA Pol (Pol gamma) for replication of mitochondrial DNA, T. brucei requires at least three to maintain the complex kDNA network.     

Mesaconase/Fumarase FumD in Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Promiscuity of Escherichia coli Class I Fumarases FumA and FumB

Mesaconase catalyzes the hydration of mesaconate (methylfumarate) to (S)-citramalate. The enzyme participates in the methylaspartate pathway of glutamate fermentation as well as in the metabolism of various C₅-dicarboxylic acids such as mesaconate or L-threo-β-methylmalate. We have recently shown that Burkholderia xenovorans uses a promiscuous class I fumarase to catalyze this reaction in the course of mesaconate utilization. Here we show that classical Escherichia coli class I fumarases A and B (FumA and FumB) are capable of hydrating mesaconate with 4% (FumA) and 19% (FumB) of the catalytic efficiency k _cat/K _m, compared to the physiological substrate fumarate. Furthermore, the genomes of 14.8% of sequenced Enterobacteriaceae (26.5% of E. coli, 90.6% of E. coli O157:H7 strains) possess an additional class I fumarase homologue which we designated as fumarase D (FumD). All these organisms are (opportunistic) pathogens. fumD is clustered with the key genes for two enzymes of the methylaspartate pathway of glutamate fermentation, glutamate mutase and methylaspartate ammonia lyase, converting glutamate to mesaconate. Heterologously produced FumD was a promiscuous mesaconase/fumarase with a 2- to 3-fold preference for mesaconate over fumarate. Therefore, these bacteria have the genetic potential to convert glutamate to (S)-citramalate, but the further fate of citramalate is still unclear. Our bioinformatic analysis identified several other putative mesaconase genes and revealed that mesaconases probably evolved several times from various class I fumarases independently. Most, if not all iron-dependent fumarases, are capable to catalyze mesaconate hydration.     

A mitochondrial NADH-dependent fumarate reductase involved in the production of succinate excreted by procyclic Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is a parasitic protist responsible for sleeping sickness in humans. The procyclic stage of T. brucei expresses a soluble NADH-dependent fumarate reductase (FRDg) in the peroxisome-like organelles called glycosomes. This enzyme is responsible for the production of about 70% of the excreted succinate, the major end product of glucose metabolism in this form of the parasite. Here we functionally characterize a new gene encoding FRD (FRDm1) expressed in the procyclic stage. FRDm1 is a mitochondrial protein, as evidenced by immunolocalization, fractionation of digitonin-permeabilized cells, and expression of EGFP-tagged FRDm1 in the parasite. RNA interference was used to deplete FRDm1, FRDg, or both together. The analysis of the resulting mutant cell lines showed that FRDm1 is responsible for 30% of the cellular NADH-FRD activity, which solves a long standing debate regarding the existence of a mitochondrial FRD in trypanosomatids. FRDg and FRDm1 together account for the total NADH-FRD activity in procyclics, because no activity was measured in the double mutant lacking expression of both proteins. Analysis of the end products of 13C-enriched glucose excreted by these mutant cell lines showed that FRDm1 contributes to the production of between 14 and 44% of the succinate excreted by the wild type cells. In addition, depletion of one or both FRD enzymes results in up to 2-fold reduction of the rate of glucose consumption. We propose that FRDm1 is involved in the maintenance of the redox balance in the mitochondrion, as proposed for the ancestral soluble FRD presumably present in primitive anaerobic cells.     

Cytokinesis in bloodstream stage Trypanosoma brucei requires a family of katanins and spastin

Microtubule severing enzymes regulate microtubule dynamics in a wide range of organisms and are implicated in important cell cycle processes such as mitotic spindle assembly and disassembly, chromosome movement and cytokinesis. Here we explore the function of several microtubule severing enzyme homologues, the katanins (KAT80, KAT60a, KAT60b and KAT60c), spastin (SPA) and fidgetin (FID) in the bloodstream stage of the African trypanosome parasite, Trypanosoma brucei. The trypanosome cytoskeleton is microtubule based and remains assembled throughout the cell cycle, necessitating its remodelling during cytokinesis. Using RNA interference to deplete individual proteins, we show that the trypanosome katanin and spastin homologues are non-redundant and essential for bloodstream form proliferation. Further, cell cycle analysis revealed that these proteins play essential but discrete roles in cytokinesis. The KAT60 proteins each appear to be important during the early stages of cytokinesis, while downregulation of KAT80 specifically inhibited furrow ingression and SPA depletion prevented completion of abscission. In contrast, RNA interference of FID did not result in any discernible effects. We propose that the stable microtubule cytoskeleton of T. brucei necessitates the coordinated action of a family of katanins and spastin to bring about the cytoskeletal remodelling necessary to complete cell division.     

Cloning, sequencing, and mutational analysis of the Bradyrhizobium japonicum fumC-like gene: evidence for the existence of two different fumarases.

The Bradyrhizobium japonicum fumarase gene (fumC-like) was cloned and sequenced, and a fumC deletion mutant was constructed. This mutant had a Nod+ Fix+ phenotype in symbiosis with the host plant, soybean, and growth in minimal medium with fumarate as sole carbon source was also not affected. The cloned B. japonicum fumC gene fully complemented an Escherichia coli Fum- mutant, strain JH400, for growth in minimal medium with fumarate. The predicted amino acid sequence of the FumC protein showed strong similarity to the E. coli FumC protein, Bacillus subtilis CitG protein, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fum1 protein, and the mammalian fumarases. The B. japonicum FumC protein accounted for about 40% of the total fumarase activity in aerobically grown cells. The remaining 60% was ascribed to a temperature-labile fumarase. These data suggest that B. japonicum possesses two different fumarase isoenzymes, one of which is encoded by fumC. Besides E. coli, which has three fumarases, B. japonicum is thus the second bacterium for which there is genetic evidence for the existence of more than one fumarase.     

Experimental and in silico analyses of glycolytic flux control in bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei

A mathematical model of glycolysis in bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei was developed previously on the basis of all available enzyme kinetic data (Bakker, B. M., Michels, P. A. M., Opperdoes, F. R., and Westerhoff, H. V. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 3207-3215). The model predicted correctly the fluxes and cellular metabolite concentrations as measured in non-growing trypanosomes and the major contribution to the flux control exerted by the plasma membrane glucose transporter. Surprisingly, a large overcapacity was predicted for hexokinase (HXK), phosphofructokinase (PFK), and pyruvate kinase (PYK). Here, we present our further analysis of the control of glycolytic flux in bloodstream form T. brucei. First, the model was optimized and extended with recent information about the kinetics of enzymes and their activities as measured in lysates of in vitro cultured growing trypanosomes. Second, the concentrations of five glycolytic enzymes (HXK, PFK, phosphoglycerate mutase, enolase, and PYK) in trypanosomes were changed by RNA interference. The effects of the knockdown of these enzymes on the growth, activities, and levels of various enzymes and glycolytic flux were studied and compared with model predictions. Data thus obtained support the conclusion from the in silico analysis that HXK, PFK, and PYK are in excess, albeit less than predicted. Interestingly, depletion of PFK and enolase had an effect on the activity (but not, or to a lesser extent, expression) of some other glycolytic enzymes. Enzymes located both in the glycosomes (the peroxisome-like organelles harboring the first seven enzymes of the glycolytic pathway of trypanosomes) and in the cytosol were affected. These data suggest the existence of novel regulatory mechanisms operating in trypanosome glycolysis.     

Anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli on d-tartrate depends on the fumarate carrier DcuB and fumarase, rather than the l-tartrate carrier TtdT and l-tartrate dehydratase

Escherichia coli is able to grow under anaerobic conditions on D: -tartrate when glycerol is supplied as an electron donor (D-tartrate fermentation). D-Tartrate was converted to succinate. Growth was lost in strains deficient for DcuB, the fumarate/succinate antiporter of fumarate respiration. The L-tartrate/succinate antiporter TtdT of L-tartrate fermentation, or the C4-dicarboxylate carriers DcuA and DcuC, were not able to support D-tartrate transport and fermentation. Deletion of fumB demonstrated, that fumarase B is required for growth on D-tartrate. The mutant lost most (about 79%) of D-tartrate dehydratase activity. L-Tartrate dehydratase (TtdAB), and fumarase A or C, showed no or only a small contribution to D-tartrate dehydratase activity. Therefore D-tartrate is metabolised by a sequence of reactions analogous to that from L-tartrate fermentation, including dehydration to oxaloacetate, which is then converted to malate, fumarate and succinate. The stereoisomer specific carrier TtdT and dehydratase TtdAB of L-tartrate fermentation are substituted by enzymes from general anaerobic fumarate metabolism, the antiporter DcuB and fumarase B, which have a broader substrate specificity. No D-tartrate specific carriers and enzymes are involved in the pathway.