The development of the macrogamete and oocyst wall in Eimeria maxima: immuno-light and electron microscopy

We have identified, and followed the development of three macrogamete organelles involved in the formation of the oocyst wall of Eimeria maxima. The first were small lucent vacuoles that cross-reacted with antibodies to the apple domains of the Toxoplasma gondii microneme protein 4. They appeared early in development and were secreted during macrogamete maturation to form an outer veil and were termed veil forming bodies. The second were the wall forming bodies type 1, large, electron dense vacuoles that stained positively only with antibodies raised to an enriched preparation of the native forms of 56 (gam56), 82 (gam82) and 230 kDa (gam230) gametocyte antigens (termed anti-APGA). The third were the wall forming bodies type 2, which appeared before the wall forming bodies type 1 but remain enclosed within the rough endoplasmic reticulum and stained positively with antibodies raised to recombinant versions of gam56 (anti-gam56), gam82 (anti-gam82) and gam230 (anti-gam230) plus anti-APGA. At the initiation of oocyst wall formation, the anti-T. gondii microneme protein 4 positive outer veil detached from the surface. The outer layer of the oocyst wall was formed by the release of the contents of wall forming bodies type 1 at the surface to form an electron dense, anti-APGA positive layer. The wall forming bodies type 2 appeared, subsequently, to give rise to the electron lucent inner layer. Thus, oocyst wall formation in E. maxima represents a sequential release of the contents of the veil forming bodies, wall forming bodies types 1 and 2 and this may be controlled at the level of the rough endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi body.     

Eimeria tenella: further studies on the development of the oocyst

AIM: The present study investigated the processes of macrogametogenesis and oocyst formation of Eimeria tenella (Xiamen strain), including the formation of wall-forming body1 (WFB1) and wall-forming body 2 (WFB2), the club-shape body and the origin of the residual body during the transformation from a macrogamete to an oocyst. METHOD: Transmission electron microscopy was used to follow ultrastructural changes of the organelles during parasite development. Frozen section techniques and special staining were used to determine the chemical composition of the club-shape body. RESULTS: Electron lighter WFB1 appeared earlier than the electron denser WFB2 during the process of cyst wall formation. WFB2 appeared to play a key role in cyst wall formation, whereas WFB1 may have a limited role in the wall-forming process. When two last generation merozoites entered the same host cell simultaneously, one of them grew well, but the other one was developmentally retarded, and became a residual body. Our study indicates that the content of the club-shape body are lipoidal in nature, not amyolpectin as suggested previously, because they stained black by Sudan black-B. CONCLUSIONS: During of macrogametogenesis and oocyst formation of E. tenella (Xiamen strain), WFB2 plays a major role in cyst wall formation. The residual bodies come from the undeveloped macrogametes. The club-body is lipoid; and lipometabolism is important energy resource in E. tenella development.     

Embryology of barley. IV. Ultrastructure of the antipodal cells of Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Bomi before and after fertilization of the egg cell

The antipodal cells have been the stepchildren in most investigations of the female gametophyte. In Hordeum vulgare cv. Bomi, three antipodal cells are originally developed chalazally but because of differential growth of the embryo sac they soon become laterally situated and their number increases to 35–50 cells and the shape, size and structure of the cells change in the time before as well as after fertilization. The cells persist until about 60–70 h after pollination. At that time, the embryo consists of about 12–15 cells and a cellularization of the nuclear endosperm has started peripherally. The size of nuclei, and especially nucleoli, in the antipodal cells increases tremendously in the investigated period and the amounts of organelles also change. The walls of antipodals are diversified depending on which cells they are separating, and wall invaginations are developed especially between antipodal cells and surrounding nucellar cells in the placental region. The mitochondria appear in various shapes in section view, very often as cups or dumbbells with a rim in the ends containing cristae and a thin cristae-free base. These bases are sometimes stretched out as thin parts and at last a simple parting occurs. Binary fissions of the plastids happen especially in the hours before and just after egg fertilization. ER is extraordinarily well developed in the whole period of investigation and many ribosomes are attached to the membranes. Dictyosomes form numerous vesicles, especially in the antipodals near the nucellar cells in the placental region. These ultrastructural details support the opinion that antipodal cells may play an important role in the embryo sac and are able to be responsible for the supply of nutrition for the whole gametophyte and take part in the supply of nutrition during embryo formation.     

An ultrastructural and electrophysiological study of the development of neuro-muscular junctions between previously dissociated foetal rat cells in vitro

Summary The development of neuro-muscular junctions between previously dissociated foetal rat spinal cord and somatic muscle has been investigated. The first indications of junction formation, both ultrastructurally and electrophysiologically, were observed after circa 18 days in vitro. The junctions contained numerous vesicles, but no secondary folds were developed even after 6 weeks in culture, and synaptic densities were not well marked. Functional endplates were found, and action potentials, endplate potentials and miniature endplate potentials recorded.The authors wish to thank Mr. D. Fraser, B. Sc., for valued technical help, and Mr. S. Waterman for photographic printing.     

A comparative study of the fine structure of coleorhiza and root cells during the early hours of germination of rye embryos

Summary The sequences of changes which occur in the fine structure of root and coleorhiza cells of the rye embryo during the first 9 hours of germination are described. Quiescent cells from both tissues characteristically possess no vacuole, a cytoplasm densely packed with ribosomes, lipid droplets largely confined to a peripheral position, a greatly reduced endomembrane system, mitochondria with few cristae and nuclei in which the heterochromatin is condensed. Following imbibition the structure of root cells is elaborated slowly. Microtubules and dictyosomes appear, followed by the development of mitochondrial cristae and endoplasmic reticulum and the dispersion of lipid droplets. A similar pattern of events occurs within coleorhiza cells but at a much enhanced rate. By 6 hours the endomembrane system is highly organized but by 9 hours it has largely disappeared. These observations are discussed in relation to the penetration of the root through the coleorhiza.     

The ultrastructural development of plastids in leaves of maize plants exposed to continuous illumination

Summary Chloroplast differentiation in relation to increasing leaf age has been investigated in maize plants exposed to continuous illumination. In the young leaves the proplastids differentiate into chloroplasts containing well organized grana as well as prolamellar bodies. In the older leaves, while plastids differentiate, the prolamellar bodies are no longer detectable. Chloroplast ability to build up prolamellar bodies does not seems so much a light dependent process as it is affected by cell differentiation rate.Supported by a grant of C.N.R.     

The relationships between temperature and rate of development in two geographic stocks of Aphidius sonchi in the laboratory

The developmental periods from egg to adult of two stocks of the aphid parasite, Aphidius sonchi Marshall (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae), were determined under various constant and alternating temperature regimes. The relationship between temperature and rate of development for each of the two stocks under constant conditions was described satisfactorily by the logistic curve. Based on the constant temperature curves, comparisons showed that temperature alternations did not accelerate or decelerate rate of development in either stock. Further analysis indicated that rates of development at extreme temperatures were well described by the logistic curve.The data and subsequent analyses showed that (1) because of the curvilinear form of the relationship, durations of development can differ considerably between constant and varying conditions if comparisons are made using daily mean temperatures; (2) as a result, the development threshold and thermal constant estimated by a hyperbolic transformation of data referred to daily mean temperatures will vary with the amplitude and pattern of fluctuations; and (3) temperature relationships derived from laboratory data can be used safely to predict the development of insects in the field.

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Résumé La durée du développement de l'oeuf à l'adulte de deux lignées d'A. sonchi Marshall (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) a été déterminée en températures constantes et avec des thermopériodes. La courbe logistique a décrit correctement la relation entre la température et la vitesse de développement pour chacune des deux lignées en conditions constantes. En se basant sur les courbes à température constante, les comparaisons ont montré que l'alternance thermique n'accélère, ni ne ralentit le développement des lignées. Une analyse complémentaire a montré que le développement aux températures extrêmes était correctement décrit par la courbe logistique. Les données et les analyses consécutives ont montré: (1) que par suite de l'aspect curviligne de la relation, les durées de développement en conditions constantes et thermopériodiques peuvent différer considérablement si les comparaisons portent sur les températures quotidiennes moyennes; (2) qu'en conséquence, le seuil de développement et la constante thermique estimés par une transformation hyperbolique des données concernant les températures quotidiennes moyennes varieront avec l'amplitude et le mode de fluctuation; et (3) que les relations thermiques obtenues à partir des données de laboratoire ne peuvent être utilisées en confiance pour prédire le développement des insectes dans la nature.

     

Studies on the Storage Polysaccharides of the Coccidia Eimeria bovis and Eimeria stiedai

Polysaccharides have been isolated from Eimeria bovis and E. stiedai by the use of alkali. The purified polysaccharides stain purple with iodine and have been shown by chemical and enzymic means to be amylopectin. The storage amylopectins of these coccidia differ slightly from typical plant amylopectins in their fine structure.     

The development of ommatidial patterning in metamorphosed eye imaginal discs implants ofDrosophila melanogaster

Summary The development of the rhabdomeric pattern in the compound eye ofDrosophila has been studied using combined transplantation and electron microscope techniques. In a first series of experiments eye imaginal discs of increasing age were implanted into larvae ready to pupate, thus losing variable amounts of the normal time for development. A sequence of differentiative abilities was found in the metamorphosed test pieces. As far as the photoreceptor cells are concerned, the most prominent steps of this sequence are: ability to form groups with other similar elements, anatomical polarization of microvilli, establishment of the rhabdomeric pattern and formation of an equator line. The stability of determination of the equator line was tested in a second experimental series. Fragment of different topographical origin within the mature eye anlage were brought to metamorphosis by implantation into larvae ready to pupate. It was found that an equator line differentiates only in those pieces which according to the published anlage maps contain the prospective equator region prior to metamorphosis. The mitotic abilities of implanted eye imaginal discs were investigated by means of in vitro³H-thymidine pulse-labelling and light microscope autoradiography of the differentiated test pieces. During the third larval stage the eye anlage is traversed by two consecutive mitotic waves, each one of them producing different categories of receptor cells. The first, anterior wave predominantly produces cells oriented toward the poles of the eye within the ommatidia, while the second, posterior wave gives rise to elements exclusively in an equatorial position. The dynamics of this proliferation are discussed in relation to the findings in the implantation experiments. Silver-grain counts support the possibility that at least two successive cell divisions occur in the eye anlage between labeling with tritiated thymidine and beginning of morphological differentiation. The relevance of this finding for the understanding of the concept of acquisition of competence is discussed.     

Ultrastructural changes inChlorella fusca during iron deficiency and vanadium treatment

Summary The ultrastructure of the unicellular green algaChlorella fusca, grown in the absence and presence of vanadium (4 · 10^–7 M as NH₄VO₃) and under iron deficiency, is investigated by electron microscopy. Iron and vanadium deficiencies are characterized by an accumulation of intracellular starch, the observation being confirmed by chemical analysis of the amount of algal total starch. While iron deficiency causes dishorders in the chloroplast lamellar system and very often disintegration of the whole cell, the presence of vanadate prevents these symptoms. V-grown cells form only little starch, but show an enlarged thylakoid system within the chloroplast. The metabolic significance of these observations is discussed.Taken in part from the forthcoming doctoral thesis of L. J. M. Becker.     

The programming of silk-gland development in Bombyx mori

Summary The cytological development of the silk gland has been studied by light and electron microscopy in silkworms experimentally starved at different periods of the natural feeding stage during the fifth instar. When newly molted animals are not provided with food, no sign of growth is observed. Starvation initiated early during the obligatory feeding period, stops cell growth and development of the organelles involved in protein synthesis and secretion, whereas it induces the appearance of organelles concerned with autolysis. These effects are reversible if starvation is not prolonged beyond two days. Starvation during the facultative feeding period, at the time of massive fibroin production, results in quantitative and qualitative modifications of organelles related to the decrease of fibroin production and the onset of autolysis.Rough endoplasmic reticulum, responsible for fibroin synthesis, forms transitory whorls. Fibroin transport via the Golgi apparatus and secretion of the protein into the gland lumen decrease parallel to fibroin synthesis, so that no fibroin storage can be detected in any organelle. After food deprivation, autophagosomes and secondary lysosomes rapidly develop in the cytoplasm, and if starvation continues portions of the cytoplasm are sequestered and completely destroyed. If animals are refed, fibroin production is resumed and autolysis declines.These ultrastructural alterations of the silk gland during experimental starvation are very similar to those observed during the periods of physiological starvation (molt and cocoon spinning) and generally considered to be under hormonal control. Our results raise the question of the nature of interactions between alimentary and hormonal factors which control silk-gland development.This study was supported by a grant from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (A.T.P., Contract n 1472) and was partly carried out in the Centre de Microscopie Electronique, CMEABG, Université Claude Bernard, Lyon and the Laboratoire d'Histologie, Service de Quantimétrie, Faculté de Médicine, Université Claude Bernard, Lyon     

The development of the lymphoid organs of flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, from hatching to 13 months

The growth of the lymphoid organs, such as head kidney, spleen and thymus were studied in flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus Temminck & Schlegel, from hatching to 13 months of age. Except for the thymus, all organs grew as the fish grew. By 2 months of age the lymphoid organs attained their maximum relative weight. The organ weight showed a closer correlation to body weight than they did to age. The total number of leucocytes in the lymphoid organs increased with age, but the number per milligram of lymphoid organ remained constant. A micro and ultrastructural study of the lymphoid organs showed that the full development of the lymphoid organs was not achieved until the juvenile stage. The spleen and head kidney had mixed populations of "red" and "white" cells. The head kidney was more lymphoid than the spleen. The thymus involuted quickly during the first 6 months. The blood components had no obvious relationship with age or season during the period studied.     

Genetic variability of resistance to Eimeria acervulina and E. tenella in chickens

Summary The genetic variability of 18 sire families of the Athens-Canadian randombred population infected with coccidiosis was assessed by examining the response variables of weight gain, packed red blood cell volume, mortality and coccidial lesions. A significant gain and PCV depression and high lesion scores for Eimeria tenella and E. acervulina were produced in the infected group compared to the noninfected group. Significant variation among the sire families was observed for all of the response variables except E. acervulina lesions and a significant sex x sire interaction was observed for weight gain. The heritability (h²) estimates for the response variables revealed that resistance to coccidiosis in chickens is moderately heritable. The h² estimates for gain and PCV increased with the coccidial infections indicating that maximum progress in selecting for resistance should be made when the population was exposed to coccidial infection. Gain was positively correlated to the other measures of resistance and thus selecting for coccidial resistance should not reduce growth rates. PCV was similarly correlated but had higher positive correlation with E. tenella lesion. Percent mortality which is the selection parameter in most coccidial selection programs was correlated with resistance to coccidiosis. The phenotypic and genotypic correlations demonstrated that chickens susceptible to E. tenella were also susceptible to E. acervulina. Total lesion scores were moderately to highly correlated with the other variables and would be a suitable variable to use in coccidiosis experimentation including a genetic selection program for resistance. This study shows that progress could be made in selecting for resistance to coccidiosis in chickens using one or a combination of these response variables.     

The effect of temperature on the development time and brood size of diaptomus pallidus herrick

Diaptomus pallidus individuals were raised in the laboratory at three temperatures (15, 20, and 25°C) and fed an alfalfa and trout-food diet ad libitum. Data were taken on the development times of the egg, naupliar, and each copepodid stage and the brood sizes of field animals acclimated to the test conditions.The results indicated D. pallidus does not have a temperature range over which its development rate is nearly constant as earlier reported. Rather, the development rate is temperature dependent within the experimental range. Broods produced at 20°C and 25°C were significantly smaller than those produced at 15°C but not significantly different from each other.     

Algicidal activity of rhamnolipid biosurfactants produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The algicidal activity of the rhamnolipid biosurfactants (the mixture of Rha-Rha-C₁₀-C₁₀ and Rha-C₁₀-C₁₀) produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa was investigated in the present paper. The results indicated that the biosurfactants had potential algicidal effects on the harmful algal bloom (HAB) species, Heterosigma akashiwo. The growth of H. akashiwo was strongly inhibited in medium containing rhamnolipids (0.4–3.0 mg L⁻¹); moreover, the rhamnolipids showed strong lytic activity toward H. akashiwo at higher concentrations (≥4.0 mg L⁻¹). In addition, the effects of the rhamnolipids on the growth of Gymnodinium sp. and Prorocentrum dentatum, another two kinds of HAB species, were also studied. Compared with the dramatic algicidal effect on H. akashiwo, the cells of P. dentatum were inhibited or lysed at higher concentrations (1.0–10.0 mg L⁻¹), while the cells of Gymnodinium sp. were not suppressed with the same treatment, indicating the rhamnolipids had the potential for the selective control of HABs.Morphometric analysis at ultrastructural level by transmission electron micrographs indicated that the extent of ultrastructural damage of the alga was severe at high concentrations of rhamnolipids and during extended periods of contact. The first response occurred in the plasma membrane which partly disintegrated. The lack of membrane facilitated the rhamnolipid biosurfactants into the cells and allowed damage to other organelles, which resulted in the injury of chloroplast, vacuolization of mitochondria and deformation of the cristae, disruption of nuclear membrane and condensation of chromatin in nucleus, suggesting that the lytic activity of rhamnolipids was mainly due to their powerful surfactivity and their tendency to cohere on the surface of phospholipids bimolecular layer of the cells and further destroyed the layers, and then the structure of quasi-membrane configurations inside the cells was disintegrated, following by the irreversible damage to the ultrastructure and the loss of the function of organelles, consequently leading the cells to lyse.     

Phylogenetic relationships of Auriculoscypha based on ultrastructural and molecular studies

The phylogeny of Auriculoscypha anacardiicola, an associate of scale insects in India, is investigated using subcellular characters and MP and Bayesian analyses of combined nuLSU-rDNA, nuSSU-rDNA and 5.8S rDNA sequence data. It has simple septa with a pulley-wheel-shaped pore plug, which is diagnostic of phytoparasitic members of the Pucciniomycetes, and hyphal wall break on branching, a phenomenon unique to some simple septate heterobasidiomycetes. The septal ultrastructure of A. anacardiicola is similar to that of the genus Septobasidium. The close relationship to Septobasidium is also confirmed by rDNA sequence analyses. The polyphyletic nature of the order Platygloeales, noted in earlier studies, is evident from the present molecular analysis as well. The placement of Auriculoscypha in the Platygloeales can no longer be justified and both ultrastructural and molecular evidence strongly support the placement of Auriculoscypha in the Septobasidiales.     

An ultrastructural study of septal development in hyphae of Polyporus biennis

A method was developed which allowed the ultrastructural study of septal formation in the basidiomycete Polyporus biennis. The method involved fixing and embedding single clamp connections. Clamp connections with septa at desired developmental stages were located by light microscopy. The septum grew by the incorporation of vesicles of wall material precursors. The rim of the developing septum was drawn centripetally inwards by a contracting collar of microfilaments within a darkly staining matrix. The inflation of the central pore swelling was governed by realigned microfilaments. The parenthesomes were formed, starting at the apex, by the utilization of the microfilament/matrix material lying along the septum. On completion of the parenthesomes a transient striated structure, governed by microfilaments, was formed in the pore channel and the areas enclosed by the parenthesomes. The maturation of the septum involved the laying down of ER along the septum and the occlusion of each end of the pore channel.     

Suberized tyloses in trees: An ultrastructural and cytochemical study

The nature of the wall layers observed in suberized tyloses was studied in Populus basalmifera L., Ulmus americana L. and Quercus rubra L. As the suberin layers were present only in tyloses that had completed their expansion, most of the results concern mature tyloses. The cyto- and immunocytochemical tests were conducted, respectively, with an exoglucanase having a binding affinity for β(1→4)-D-glucans, the subunits of cellulose, and with two monoclonal antibodies specific for un-esterified and esterified pectic molecules. In the three species, labelling for pectic compounds was intense over the external layer of tyloses but usually more dispersed or nearly absent over the layer corresponding to a primary wall that was, however, intensely labelled for β(1→4)-D-glucans. The outer wall layer, comparable to a middle lamella in mature tyloses, was continuous with similar material that appeared to be secreted by the tylosis. This material was particularly abundant in pit chambers, in void spaces between the tylosis and the vessel wall, particularly at the junction of the vessel and two adjacent cells, and close to the rim of vessel perforation plates. In P. balsamifera, a single suberized layer or occasionally a succession of suberized and cellulose-containing layers was observed internal to the tylosis primary wall. In U. americana, the wall of tylosis was similar to that of P. balsamifera except that, at times, a secondary-wall-like layer was formed and only a single suberized layer was observed. In Q. rubra, the suberized layer was always observed internal to the tylosis secondary wall. Simple pits were also constantly noted in Q. rubra tyloses. The occasional occurrence of a cellulosic layer internally to the suberized layer was observed in the three species. Histochemical tests revealed that lignin was also an important component of the tylosis wall. The tyloses frequently contained phenolic compounds in close association with the suberized layers. The significance of the formation of suberized tyloses in trees is discussed.     

Cytochemical changes in the developmental process of Nostoc sphaeroides (cyanobacterium)

There are several apparent developmental stages in the life cycle of Nostoc sphaeroides Kützing, an edible cyanobacterium found mainly in paddy fields in central China. The cytochemical changes in developmental stages such as hormogonia, aseriate stage, filamentous stage and colony in N. sphaeroides were examined using fluorescent staining and colorimetric methods. The staining of acidic and sulfated polysaccharides increased with development when hormogonia were used as the starting point. Acidic polysaccharides (AP) were most abundant at the aseriate stage and then decreased, while the sulfated polysaccharides (SP) were highest at the colony stage. Quantitatively, along the developmental process from hormogonia to colony, total carbohydrates first increased, then became stable, and then reached their highest level at the colony stage, while reducing sugars were highest at the hormogonia stage and then decreased sharply once development began. SP were not detectable in the hot water soluble polysaccharides (HWSP), and hormogonia had the lowest content of AP, while old colonies had the highest. The AP content of the aseriate stage, filamentous stage and young colony stage were very similar. The evolutionary relationships reflected in the developmental stages of N. sphaeroides are discussed.