How is light interception efficiency related to shoot structure in tall canopy species?

Coexistence of multiple species is a fundamental aspect of plant and forest ecology. Although spatial arrangement of leaves within crowns is an important determinant of light interception and productivity, shoot structure varies considerably among coexisting canopy species. We investigated the relative importance of structural traits in determining the light availability of leaves (I) and light interception efficiency at the current-year shoot level (LIE_CS; the total light interception of leaves divided by shoot biomass) at the top of crowns of 11 canopy species in a cool-temperate forest in Japan. In accordance with Corner’s rules, the total mass, stem mass, total mass of leaf laminae, individual leaf area, and stem cross-sectional area of current-year shoot were positively correlated with each other, and branching intensity (the number of current-year shoots per branch unit of 1-m length) was inversely correlated with these traits across species. In contrast, I was correlated not with these traits, but with leaf elevation angle (a _L). Moreover, variation in LIE_CS across species was caused by variation in I (thus in a _L). Thus, a _L is a key parameter for the leaf light interception of canopy shoots in this cool-temperate forest. Differences in a _L across species might be related to different physiological strategies that developed in the high light and water-limited environment of forest canopies. Small variation in the length of current-year shoots among species implies that variations in I and LIE_CS would be important for the coexistence of these canopy species.     

The effect of age on height growth in even-sized saplings of Fagus sylvatica L.

Key message

After controlling for the effects of size and light, partial regression revealed that height growth of common beech saplings was negatively affected by sapling age.

Abstract

Common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) saplings were studied along gradients of light availability (4–82 % of full sunlight), initial size (9–290 cm), and age (2–25 years) to examine the interactive effect of these variables on saplings’ annual height growth. Although age was non-significant as a main effect in a linear model, sapling age had a significant interaction with the other variables. After controlling for the effects of size and light, partial regression revealed that height growth was negatively affected by sapling age. Observed growth decline in older common-sized saplings may be explained not as effect of age per se, but as indirect age-related effect probably induced through plastic response of saplings to past growth conditions.     

Growth and posture control strategies in Fagus sylvatica and Acer pseudoplatanus saplings in response to canopy disturbance

Background and Aims

Forest tree saplings that grow in the understorey undergo frequent changes in their light environment to which they must adapt to ensure their survival and growth. Crown architecture, which plays a critical role in light capture and mechanical stability, is a major component of sapling adaptation to canopy disturbance. Shade-adapted saplings typically have plagiotropic stems and branches. After canopy opening, they need to develop more erect shoots in order to exploit the new light conditions. The objective of this study was to test whether changes in sapling stem inclination occur after canopy opening, and to analyse the morphological changes associated with stem reorientation.

Methods

A 4-year canopy-opening field experiment with naturally regenerated Fagus sylvatica and Acer pseudoplatanus saplings was conducted. The appearance of new stem axes, stem basal diameter and inclination along the stem were recorded every year after canopy opening.

Key Results

Both species showed considerable stem reorientation resulting primarily from uprighting (more erect) shoot movements in Fagus, and from uprighting movements, shoot elongation and formation of relay shoots in Acer. In both species, the magnitude of shoot uprighting movements was primarily related to initial stem inclination. Both the basal part and the apical part of the stem contributed to uprighting movements. Stem movements did not appear to be limited by stem size or by stem growth.

Conclusions

Stem uprighting movements in shade-adapted Fagus and Acer saplings following canopy disturbance were considerable and rapid, suggesting that stem reorientation processes play a significant role in the growth strategy of the species.     

Long-term removal of wheat straw decreases soil amorphous silica at Broadbalk, Rothamsted

Aims

Most cereals accumulate Si in their shoots. Soil bioavailability of Si may be a constraint on the beneficial role of silica in cereals but it is not yet well supported by field data. The aim of this study is to evaluate the long-term impact of wheat straw exports on the pool of soil phytoliths, which, it is suggested, represents the most labile and renewable pool of soil Si.

Methods

We measured the amorphous Si (ASi) in soils from several experiments at Rothamsted Research (UK), which provided long-term soil data back to the middle of the 19th century, using two alternative extraction techniques: Na₂CO₃ (referred to as AS_nc) or zinc bromide extraction (referred to as ASi_zb).

Results

All samples showed a similar range of AS_nc and ASi_zb but low values (0.1–3.4?mg?g^?1 DW) compared to published data on natural ecosystems. In the Broadbalk experiment, a decrease over time in ASi in the topsoil samples is in good agreement with the hypothesis that cropping and exports of straw leads to depletion of soil phytoliths. A decrease in Si concentration in straw samples was observed between 1883 and 1944. From 1944 to the present, Si concentration increased irregularly in the straw, probably as the result of liming, which enhanced the dissolution of the remaining phytoliths through increasing pH. In the reforested Geescroft field the higher phytolith concentration in the modern topsoil samples is in good agreement with a re-building of phytolith storage from litter input in an acidic environment.

Conclusions

Our results therefore support the hypothesis that export of wheat straw leads to a decrease in bioavailable Si.     

Hydraulic limitation on maximum height of Pinus strobus trees in northern Minnesota,USA

Key message

Using comparisons within and between trees, the authors show evidence for hydraulic limitation of tree height in a humid-climate species that is far from the global maximum tree height.

Abstract

We measured water status and two indicators of drought stress as a function of height within the canopies of four tall (32–35 m) eastern white pines (Pinus strobus) at an old-growth site in northern Minnesota, USA. Pre-dawn and midday xylem pressure potential measured on terminal shoots (Ψ _shoot), needle length, and foliar carbon isotope discrimination (δ ¹³C) all showed within-canopy gradients consistent with increasing drought stress with height. Midday Ψ _shoot near tree tops was ?1.8 MPa, close to values associated with stomatal closure for other temperate conifers. Pre-dawn Ψ _shoot decreased with height at >2× the gradient in gravitational potential. δ ¹³C was strongly correlated with height and weakly correlated with light. Needles were 15–25 % shorter at canopy top compared to the bottom of the canopy. Midday Ψ _shoot and needle length showed significant differences in regression model coefficients from tree to tree. The patterns are consistent with hydraulic constraints on height growth of white pine at this site.     

Mode of competition for light and water amongst juvenile beech and spruce trees under ambient and elevated levels of O3 and CO2

Key message

Our study provides evidence that neither elevated CO ₂ nor elevated O ₃ alters the positive asymmetric competition for light and the symmetric competition for water among beech and spruce individuals grown in monoculture. We conclude that the mechanism of competition (i.e. symmetric/asymmetric) above (e.g shading or overtopping effect) and belowground (e.g. non-preemption or foraging) rather than abiotic treatments such as elevated CO ₂ , O ₃ and CO ₂ /O ₃ regimes, plays a dominant role for ensuring competitive success among tree saplings.

Abstract

Despite numerous studies conducted on plant responses to increasing CO₂ and O₃ concentrations, there is still a gap in understanding on how these gasses would affect the mode of competition (e.g., the ability by which larger and smaller plants capture resources) at the individual level of intra-specific beech and spruce saplings. Using empirical data and simulations from the plant-growth model PLATHO, we analyzed underlying mechanisms of competition and extrapolated effects beyond the time span of the experiment. We hypothesized that among juvenile beech and spruce trees planted in monoculture, +CO₂ would diminish the positive asymmetric competition for light. Conversely, +O₃ would enhance this outcome. In addition, we hypothesized that the symmetric mode of competition belowground for water would remain unchanged, irrespective of +CO₂ and/or +O₃ treatments. Our results showed that +CO₂ and/or +O₃ treatments did not alter the mode of competition aboveground for light. Conversely, we accepted our hypothesis that the mode of competition for water would remain unchanged under both treatments. Overall, we conclude that neither +CO₂ nor +O₃ alters the positive asymmetric competition for light and the symmetric competition for water among beech and spruce individuals grown in monoculture. We further conclude that competitive mechanism above (e.g., shading or overtopping effect) and belowground (e.g., non-preemption or foraging) rather than abiotic treatments, such as elevated CO₂, O₃ and CO₂/O₃ regimes, plays a dominant role for ensuring competitive success among tree saplings.     

Spatial and temporal variations in the light environment in a primary and selectively logged forest long after logging in Peninsular Malaysia

Key message

We could show long-term effects of logging operation in a Malaysian forest. A forest selectively logged about 50 years ago had a longer sunfleck time and a less heterogeneous light spatially than primary forests.

Abstract

We compared forest light environments between a primary lowland tropical rainforest and a rainforest selectively logged 50 years ago in the Pasoh Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia using two different approaches to assess forest light environments, hemispherical canopy photographs and continuous measurements of forest photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and showed clear evidence of the long-term impact of selective logging on forest light environments. The selectively logged forest canopy consisted of shorter and smaller crowns with less variations of height and crown area than the primary forest. From the canopy structural characteristics of the selectively logged forest, we predicted that the selectively logged forest has brighter and more homogeneous forest light than the primary forest. Both hemispherical canopy photographs and measurements of PPFD showed that the selectively logged forest had more open canopies and longer sunfleck time than the primary forest. A significantly smaller variance of canopy openness and a shorter autocorrelation range in the selectively logged forest than in the primary forest were found, indicating that the selectively logged forest had a less heterogeneous light environment spatially than the primary forest. Therefore our predictions were confirmed. The results suggest that different light environments for the primary forest and forest after logging might promote different forest dynamics between them.     

Converging patterns of vertical variability in leaf morphology and nitrogen across seven Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil and Hawaii,USA

Key message

Across sites in Brazil and Hawaii, LMA and N _mass were strongly correlated with height and shade index, respectively, which may help simplify canopy function modeling of Eucalyptus plantations.

Abstract

Within tree canopies, leaf mass per area (LMA) and leaf nitrogen per unit area (N _area) commonly increase with height. Previous research has suggested that these patterns occur as a strategy to optimize carbon gain by allocating available resources to upper canopy leaves that are exposed to greater light availability. We tested three hypotheses about the influences of height, shade index (a proxy for light), and stand age on LMA and leaf nitrogen for even-aged Eucalyptus saligna and Eucalyptus grandis × urophylla plantations in Brazil and Hawaii, USA, spanning most of the environmental conditions found across 19.6 million ha of Eucalyptus spp. plantations around the world. Shade index was developed by incorporating canopy depth (inner-crown shading) and a tree height ratio relative to neighbor trees (shading from other trees). Across all sites and ages, leaf height accounted for 45 % of the variation in LMA, whereas shade index accounted for only 6 %. A combination of both factors was slightly better in accounting for LMA variation than height alone. LMA–height relationships among sites were strongest under greater light availability and in older stands. Leaf nitrogen per unit mass (N _mass) consistently decreased with shade index, whereas N _area showed no consistent pattern with height or shade index. These relationships indicate that N _mass is primarily driven by light, while height is the primary driver for LMA. The general relationships between LMA and leaf N _mass across all sites may simplify canopy function modeling of E. saligna and E. grandis × urophylla plantations.     

Alteration of nitrogen metabolism in rice variety 'Nipponbare' induced by alkali stress

Aims

Alkali stress (AS) is an important agricultural contaminant and has complex effects on plant metabolism, specifically root physiology. The aim of this study was to test the role of nitrogen metabolism regulation in alkali tolerance of rice variety 'Nipponbare'.

Methods

In this study, the rice seedlings were subjected to salinity stress (SS) or AS. Growth, the contents of inorganic ions, NH ₄ ⁺ -nitrogen (free amino acids), and NO ₃ ^? -nitrogen in the stressed seedlings were then measured. The expression of some critical genes involved in nitrogen metabolism were also assayed to test their roles in the regulation of nitrogen metabolism during adaptation of rice variety 'Nipponbare' to AS.

Results

AS showed a stronger inhibiting effect on rice variety 'Nipponbare' growth than SS. AS may have more complex effects on nitrogen metabolism than SS.

Conclusions

Effects of AS on the nitrogen metabolism of rice variety 'Nipponbare' mainly comprised two mechanisms. Firstly, in roots, AS caused the reduction of NO ₃ ^? content, which caused two harmful consequences, the large downregulation of OsNR1 expression and the subsequent reduction of NH ₄ ⁺ production in roots. On the other hand, under AS (pH, 9.11), almost all the NH ₄ ⁺ was changed to NH₃, which caused a severe deficiency of NH ₄ ⁺ surrounding the roots. Both events might cause a severe deficiency of NH ₄ ⁺ in roots. Under AS, the increased expression of several OsAMT family members in roots might be an adaptative response to the reduction of NH ₄ ⁺ content in roots or the NH ₄ ⁺ deficiency in rhizosphere. Also, the down-regulation of OsNADH-GOGAT and OsGS1;2 in roots might be due to NH ₄ ⁺ deficiency in roots. Secondly, in shoots, AS caused a larger acuumulatiuon of Na⁺, which possibly affected photorespiration and led to a continuous decrease of NH ₄ ⁺ production in shoots, and inhibited the expression of OsFd-GOGAT and OsGS2 in chloroplasts.     

Evidences and magnitude of nighttime transpiration derived from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus euphratica</Emphasis> in the extreme arid region of China

Extensive research has found that nighttime transpiration (E _n) is positively correlated to the vapour pressure deficit (VPD), that suggested E _n was highest during the night under high temperatures and low humidity along with high soil water availability, typically for the riparian forest in the extreme arid region of China. This study used the heat ratio method to measure sap velocity (V _s) for mature and saplings Populus euphratica Oliv., and then E _n was conservatively calculated as total nocturnal sap flow (F _s, the product of V _s and sapwood area A _s) between 01:00 to 06:00. A gas exchange system was used to measure the leaf transpiration rate (T _r) and stomatal conductance (g _s) of saplings. For mature trees, nighttime V _s was extensive and logarithmic correlated to VPD (similar to daytime). For saplings, g _s and T _r was extensive in different months, and also a strong logarithmic relationship was found between V _s and VPD for both daytime and nighttime periods. Both of stem sap flow and leaf gas exchange suggusted the occurrence of E _n, whether mature or sapling trees. E _n contribution to daily transpiration (E _d) was high just as expected for P. euphratica, which was confirmed by proportional E _n to E _d (E _n/E _d) means taken in 2012 (24.99%) and 2013 (34.08%). Compared to mature trees, E _n/E _d of saplings in 2013 was lower with means of 12.06%, that supported further by the shorter duration times and less T _r,n (16.64%) and g _s,n (26.45%) of leaf, suggesting that E _n magnitude is associated to individual the tree size, that effect to stored water of individual trees, although this hypothesis requires further research.     

Shoot development of Norway spruce (Picea abies) involves changes in piperidine alkaloids and condensed tannins

Key Message

Secondary chemistry of P. abies peaks early in shoot development. Condensed tannins accumulate already in late buds while piperidine alkaloid biosynthesis take place in early stage shoots.

Abstract

Plants protect new vegetative parts with defensive secondary metabolite compounds. We investigated how concentrations of piperidine alkaloids and condensed tannins change during bud burst and shoot growth in adult Picea abies. We detected 12 individual piperidine compounds, of which epipinidinone and 1,2-dehydropinidinone and two tentatively identified 1,6-imines are reported for the first time in P. abies. In addition three piperidine alkaloid compounds remain partly identified. We found that concentrations of both total piperidine alkaloids and condensed tannins were highest immediately after bud burst. While concentrations of condensed tannins started to increase during bud opening, the dilution effect decreased concentrations in the developing needles of mature branches. By contrast, the decrease of total alkaloid concentrations in mature shoots was not due to the dilution effect, but was connected to the disappearance of precursor components of biosynthesis. The concentrations of major alkaloid components remain stable from dormant buds to mature needles and twigs, underlining their importance for P. abies, although their real ecological significance is yet to be solved. Based on the structural features and timing of appearance of individual compounds, we also propose a hypothetical biosynthesis route for trans-substituted coniferous piperidine alkaloids.     

Variability of stomatal conductance, leaf anatomy, and seasonal leaf wettability of young and adult European beech leaves along a vertical canopy gradient

This study assessed the variation of leaf anatomy, chlorophyll content index (CCI), maximal stomatal conductance (g _s ^max ) and leaf wettability within the canopy of an adult European beech tree (Fagus sylvatica L.) and for beech saplings placed along the vertical gradient in the canopy. At the top canopy level (CL_28m) of the adult beech, CCI and leaf anatomy reflected higher light stress, while g _s ^max increased with height, reflecting the importance of gas exchange in the upper canopy layer. Leaf wettability, measured as drop contact angle, decreased from 85.5°?±?1.6° (summer) to 57.5°?±?2.8° (autumn) at CL_28m of the adult tree. At CL_22m, adult beech leaves seemed to be better optimized for photosynthesis than the CL_28m leaves because of a large leaf thickness with less protective and impregnated substances, and a higher CCI. The beech saplings, in contrast, did not adapt their stomatal characteristics and leaf anatomy according to the same strategy as the adult beech leaves. Consequently, care is needed when scaling up experimental results from seedlings to adult trees.     

Partitioning of belowground C in young sugar maple forest

Background and aims

Trees allocate a high proportion of assimilated carbon belowground, but the partitioning of that C among ecosystem components is poorly understood thereby limiting our ability to predict responses of forest C dynamics to global change drivers.

Methods

We labeled sugar maple saplings in natural forest with a pulse of photosynthetic ¹³C in late summer and traced the pulse over the following 3 years. We quantified the fate of belowground carbon by measuring ¹³C enrichment of roots, rhizosphere soil, soil respiration, soil aggregates and microbial biomass.

Results

The pulse of ¹³C contributed strongly to root and rhizosphere respiration for over a year, and respiration comprised about 75 % of total belowground C allocation (TBCA) in the first year. We estimate that rhizosphere carbon flux (RCF) during the dormant season comprises at least 6 % of TBCA. After 3 years, 3.8 % of the C allocated belowground was recovered in soil organic matter, mostly in water-stable aggregates.

Conclusions

A pulse of carbon allocated belowground in temperate forest supplies root respiration, root growth and RCF throughout the following year and a small proportion becomes stabilized in soil aggregates.     

Transformation of miniature potted rose (Rosa hybrida cv. Linda) with P SAG12 -ipt gene delays leaf senescence and enhances resistance to exogenous ethylene

Key message

The P _SAG12 -ipt gene was transferred to miniature rose, as the first woody species, resulting in increased ethylene resistance due to specific up-regulation of the ipt gene under senescence promoting conditions.

Abstract

Transgenic plants of Rosa hybrida ‘Linda’ were obtained via transformation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain harboring the binary vector pSG529(+) containing the P _SAG12 -ipt construct. A. tumefaciens strains AGL1, GV3850 and LBA4404 (containing P_35S-INTGUS gene) were used for transformation of embryogenic callus, but transgenic shoots were obtained only when AGL1 was applied. The highest transformation frequency was 10 % and it was achieved when half MS medium was used for the dilution of overnight culture of Agrobacterium. Southern blot confirmed integration of 1–6 copies of the nptII gene into the rose genome in the tested lines. Four transgenic lines were obtained which were morphologically true-to-type and indistinguishable from Wt shoots while they were in in vitro cultures. Adventitious root induction was more difficult in transgenic shoots compared to the Wt shoots, however, one of the transgenic lines (line 6) was rooted and subsequently analyzed phenotypically. The ipt expression levels were determined in this line after exposure to exogenous ethylene (3.5 μl l^?1) and/or darkness. Darkness resulted in twofold up-regulation of ipt expression, whereas darkness combined with ethylene caused eightfold up-regulation in line 6 compared to Wt plants. The transgenic line had significantly higher content of chlorophyll at the end of the treatment period compared to Wt plants.     

Effects of elevated CO2 on leaf area dynamics in nodulating and non-nodulating soybean stands

Aims

The effects of elevated CO₂ on leaf area index (LAI) vary among studies. We hypothesized that the interactive effects of CO₂ and nitrogen on leaf area loss have important roles in LAI regulation.

Methods

We studied the leaf area production and loss using nodulating soybean and its non-nodulating isogenic line in CO₂-controlled greenhouse systems.

Results

Leaf area production increased with elevated CO₂ levels in the nodulating soybean stand and to a lesser extent in the non-nodulating line. Elevated CO₂ levels accelerated leaf area loss only in nodulating plants. Consequently, both plants exhibited a similar stimulation of peak LAI with CO₂ elevation. The accelerated leaf loss in nodulating plants may have been caused by newly produced leaves shading the lower leaves. The nodulating plants acquired N throughout the growth phase, whereas non-nodulating plants did not acquire N after flowering due to the depletion of soil N. N retranslocation to new organs and subsequent leaf loss were faster in non-nodulating plants compared with nodulating plants, irrespective of the CO₂ levels.

Conclusion

LAI regulation in soybean involved various factors, such as light availability within the canopy, N acquisition and N demands in new organs. These effects varied among the growth stages and CO₂ levels.     

A study of the relationship between mechanical characteristics and the coastal vegetation among several broad-leaf trees in Miura Peninsula in Japan

The mechanical properties of broad-leaf tree species in a maritime-wind exposed habitat in central Japan were examined. The broad-leaf trees studied were Celtis sinensis var. japonica, Ilex integra, Eurya japonica, Pittosporum tobira, Euonymus japonicus and Cinnamomum japonicum. The results obtained can be summarized briefly as follows:

1. At places with weaker wind, the number of species increased and the height of the canopy increased.
2. The fracture strength σ_m showed no dependence on tree part or branch thickness, but was constant.
3. The order of strength was Celtis sinensis var. japonica > Ilex integra > Eurya japonica > Pittosporum tobira > Euonymus japonicus > Cinnamomum japonicum, and these six species could best adapt to the wind pressure in the study area.
4. Within species, fracture strength varied directly with wind strength.
5. The strain ε_m decreased as the trunk became thicker.
6. Within species, strain energy U_m varied directly with wind strength.

     

Effects of triploid status on growth,photosynthesis, and leaf area in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus</Emphasis>

Key message

The growth vigor of Populus triploid groups explained by higher photosynthetic rate in the vertical canopy gradient, higher relative chlorophyll content, and larger leaf area, compared to diploid group.

Abstract

Polyploids show vegetative growth superiority compared to diploids, however, the reason remains unclear. Here, we explored this observation based on variations in 12 phenotypic traits including vegetative growth, leaf area, and photosynthesis using 120 genotypes with three allotriploid groups of different heterozygosities (obtained using three types of 2n gametes) and one diploid group obtained from the same parents in Populus. Wide ranges in phenotypic variation (2.70–38.34 %) were detected in all traits within the progeny population. In addition, the vegetative growth traits, net photosynthetic rate (Pn), relative chlorophyll content index (CCI), leaf area (LA), and photosynthetic efficiency of whole leaves (PE_w) in the polyploid group were significantly higher than those in the diploid group, indicating that certain polyploid groups had greater advantages in these respects. However, there were also significant differences in vegetative growth, Pn, LA, and PE_w among the three allopolyploid groups, which probably resulted from the 2n gametes with different origins transferring different heterozygosities. Furthermore, a higher Pn of vertical canopy gradient photosynthesis was observed in triploid groups compared to the diploid group. In general, the greater vegetative growth advantages in relation to photosynthesis in the triploid groups were explained by three reasons including a higher Pn which probably resulted from a higher CCI, a higher PE_w mainly caused by a larger LA, and a lower aging rate of mature leaves.

     

Mechanistic studies of perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorooctanoic acid uptake by maize (Zea mays L. cv. TY2)

Aims

There is a need to predict trace metal concentration in plant organs at given development stages. The aim of this work was to describe the Cd hyperaccumulation kinetics in the different plant organs, throughout the complete cultivation cycle, independently of a possible soil effect.

Methods

Plants of Noccaea caerulescens were exposed in aeroponics to three constantly low Cd concentrations and harvested at 6 to 11 dates, until siliquae formation.

Results

Dry matter allocation between roots and shoots was constant over time and exposure concentrations, as well as Cd allocation. However 86 % of the Cd taken up was allocated to the shoots. Senescent rosette leaves showed similar Cd concentrations to the living ones, suggesting no redistribution from old to young organs. The Cd root influx was proportional to the exposure concentration and constant over time, indicating that plant development had no effect on this. The bio-concentration factor (BCF), i.e. [Cd]_plant/[Cd²⁺]_solution for the whole plant, roots or shoots was independent of the exposure concentration and of the plant stage.

Conclusions

Cadmium uptake in a given plant part could therefore be predicted at any plant stage by multiplying the plant part dry matter by the corresponding BCF and the Cd²⁺ concentration in the exposure solution.     

Zinc accumulation patterns in four Anthyllis vulneraria subspecies supplemented with mineral nitrogen or grown in the presence of their symbiotic bacteria

Aims

This work examines Zn accumulation in four Anthyllis vulneraria subspecies supplemented with mineral nitrogen or grown in the presence of their symbiotic bacteria.

Methods

Anthyllis vulneraria subspecies were grown hydroponically in the presence of high levels of ZnSO₄. The plants were either grown in symbiosis with one of two non-metallicolous or metallicolous Mesorhizobium inoculants or in the presence of KNO₃.

Results

When exposed to 1,000 μM Zn, shoot and root biomass of three out of our four Anthyllis subspecies cultivated with NO₃ dropped significantly by about 24–28 %; carpatica, the fourth subspecies, was not affected. Subspecies carpatica Zn tolerance was confirmed when in symbiosis with the metallicolous strain. In the presence of 1,000 μM Zn, the different Anthyllis subspecies concentrated more Zn in their roots than in their shoots and only subsp. carpatica accumulated a significant amount of Zn in its shoots. The most remarkable feature was the drastic decrease in Zn concentration in both roots (up to 2.5–3 fold) and shoots (2.6-fold) of subsp. carpatica exposed to 1,000 μM Zn and nodulated whatever the Mesorhizobium strain used, compared to the N-grown plants.

Conclusions

Our results bring new perspectives as regards phytostabilization, with the potential use of a rhizobium-inoculated leguminous subspecies displaying unusual Zn tolerance.     

Canopy accession strategies and climate responses for three Carya species common in the Eastern Deciduous Forest

Key message

Maintenance of Carya in successional stands will require canopy disturbances larger than the gap-scale to increase understory light in conjunction with reduction in competition from shade-tolerant mesophytes.

Abstract

A widespread compositional shift has been reported in Quercus–Carya forests throughout the eastern USA. Quercus and Carya are failing to regenerate and understories of these stands are increasingly dominated by shade-tolerant mesophytes. Important in this successional shift are the canopy accession strategies and climate sensitivities of the dominant and projected replacement species. The goals of our study were to document establishment and canopy accession strategies and examine the relationships between climate variables and radial growth for Carya glabra, Carya ovata, and Carya alba. The majority (75 %) of Carya individuals established in open canopy conditions. However, 40 % of our samples experienced suppression before canopy accession. Average age at canopy accession for trees that were suppressed prior to canopy recruitment was 49 years. Carya that established in closed canopy conditions were suppressed an average of 22 years and were 2.6 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) before they ascended to the canopy or experienced a release episode. Gap origin-gap release trees were in open canopy conditions for an average of 18 years and were 6.5 cm dbh before experiencing a period of suppression. The three species exhibited similar responses to climate as they were generally sensitive to prior spring and current summer temperature, and prior winter and current summer precipitation, but radial growth trends were controlled more strongly by canopy position than climate. Maintenance of Carya in successional stands will require increases in understory light and reductions in competition from shade-tolerant mesophytes. Our results indicate that canopy disturbances larger than the gap-scale are needed for Carya establishment and canopy recruitment.